A SHORT HISTORY OF 

1 PEOPLES 



WEST 




Class _^ $-3.^- 
Book .WR?,*r 



CQP»{IGHT DEPOSIT. 



ALLYN AND BACON'S SERIES OF SCHOOL HISTORIES 



A SHORT HISTORY OF 

EARLY PEOPLES 

TO 1500 A.D. 
FROM CAVE-MAN TO COLUMBUS 



BY 

WILLIS MASON WEST 

SOMETIME PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT 
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



^•^^c 



ALLYN AND BACON 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO 

... ^/^7 



WEST'S HISTORIES 
1 2mo. cloth, numerous maps, plans, and illustrations 



THE ANCIENT WORLD 
THE MODERN WORLD 
HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
AMERICAN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT 
SOURCE BOOK IN AMERICAN HISTORY 
THE STORY OF MAN'S EARLY PROGRESS 
THE STORY OF MODERN PROGRESS 
THE STORY OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 



COPYRIGHT. 1922. 



BY WILLIS MASON WEST. ^C\ 



^>^' 



Xortoooti iprfsa 

J. S. CusbliifT »'... — Hiiwi.k A Smith Co. 

Norwood, Muss., r.S.A. 



ftB iei922©''"^^54714 



FOREWORD 

Many schools have decided that, for some of their students 
at least, they must abandon Ancient history or cut down the 
time formerly given to it. For such schools this volume pre- 
sents the essentials of Ancient and Medieval times in compact 
form for a half-year course in the ninth school-year. 

My aim has been to select topics that make the past live again, 
and that at the same time permit a continuous story and prepare 
best for the study of our modern period. The book is an intro- 
duction to such a volume as my Story of Modern Progress in 
the tenth year, for students who give three half-years to Euro- 
pean history. The text is enriched with many new illustrations 
and reading references, and "exercises" have been selected 
with the brevity that befits so short a course. 

Willis Mason West 
Wind AGO Farm 

January, 1922 



CONTENTS 



List of Illustrations 
List of Maps 



Vll 

xiii 



CHAPTER 
I. 

IL 
III. 
IV. 

V. 



PART I — THE WORLD BEFORE THE GREEKS 

/ 



Men before Writing 

Bronze-Age Men in Egypt 

Men of the Euphrates and Tigris 

The Persian Empire .... 

Middle States — Phoenicians and Hebrews 



1 

9 

29 

41 

46 



PART II 



THE GREEKS 



1000-500 



VI. Aegean Civilization, 3500-1200 b.c. . 

VII. The Greeks of Homer 

VIII. From the Trojan to the Persian War 
B.C. . . . . 

IX. Greeks and Persians 

X. Athenian Leadership, 478-431 b.c. . 

XL The Athenian Empire in Peace 

XII. Everyday Life in the Age of Pericles 

XIII. The Peloponnesian War and the Fall of Hellas 



53 

58 

67 

88 

97 

103 

116 

124 



PART III — THE GRAECO-ORIENTAL WORLD 

XIV. Alexander Joins East and West .... 135 
XV. The Hellenistic World, 323-150 b.c. ... 140 



PART IV — ROME 

XVI. Land and People . . . ... . . 148 

XVII. The Early Republic, 226 b.c 157 

XVIII. United Italy under Roman Rule after 266 b.c. . 164 



VI 



CONTENTS 



CHAITER VMiK 

XIX. ThI: W INMN(i OF TIIK WoUM), 2()4-l»)l B.C. 174 

XX. Sthifk between Rich and Pook, 140-49 b.( . 1S3 

XXI. The Gracchi, 133-121 n.r 192 

XXll. The Senate and Military Chiefs 197 
Marius and Sidln ; Povipey and Caesar 

PART V — THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

XXIII. FouNDiNc; the E.mpire, 49-31 b.c 204 

XX1\'. The Emperors of the First Two Centuries, 31 

B.c.-lSO a.d 211 

XXV. The Early Empire to 180 a.d. : Government, 

Society, Daily Life 219 

XXVI. The Later Empire: the Decline and Fall . 229 

XXVII. The Victory ok Christianity 237 

PART VI — ROMANO-TEUTONIC EUROPE 

XXVIII. MER(;iN(i OF Roman and Teuton, 378-800 a.d. . 244 

XXIX. Charlemagne's Empire 259 

XXX. The Feudal Ac^e, 800-1300 265 

New Barbarian Attacks : Britain Becomes England ; 
Feudalism; The Church in the Feudal Age; Eng- 
land in the Feudal Age, Other Lands 
XXXI. A(iE OF THE Crusades, 1100-1300 . .294 

The Cnis(i({c.-<; Ri.^c of Towu^; Learning and Art 



PART VII — AGE OF THE RENAISSANCE 

XXXII. En(;land and France. 1300-1500 . 

XXXIII. Other States, 13(M)- 15(H) .... 

XXXIV. I'm: Renaissance, 1300-1500 .... 

Appendix : A CIas.sified List of Selected Books for the Library 
Index, Pronouncing Vocabulary and Map References 



305 
313 
321 

1 
7 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

The Nile and the Great Pyramid. Colored . . Frontispiece 

PAGE 

1. Flint Fist-hatchet of Old Stone Age 1 

2. Ivory Needles of Old Stone Age 2 

3. CHff Caves near Le Moustier . . . Plate I, facing 2 

4. Mammoth Engraved by a Stone-age Artist . Plate I, facing 2 

5. Reindeer Graven on Stone by Stone-age Artist ... 3 

6. Prehistoric Paint Tube. Three views ..... 4 

7. Stonehenge, Ruins and a " Restoration" . Plate II, facing 5 



8. Arrow-heads (Britain) of New Stone Age 

9. Primitive Hoe and Evolution of the Plow . 

10. Stages in Fire-making ....... 

11. Scraper of Old Stone Age. Two views 

12. Temple of Horus and Hathor at Edfu . Plate III, facing 11 

13. Egyptian Capital, from Temple of Amnion at Karnak 

14. Levying the Tax ; an Egyptian relief .... 

15. Hall of Columns in Temple of Ammon, Karnak 

Plate IV, facing 12 

16. Egyptian Noble Hunting Waterfowl ; a tomb-painting 14 

17. Pyramids and the Sphinx .... Plate V, facing 15 

18. Egyptian Market Scene ; a relief ...... 17 

19. Part of Rosetta Stone with hieroglyphs first deciphered . 19 

20. Part of Above on a Larger Scale 19 

21. Rosetta Stone, as preserved in the British Museum . . 20 

22. Temples of Rameses and of Isis . . Plate VI. facing 21 

23. Egyptian and Roman Numerals ...... 21 

24. Offerings to the Dead ; Egyptian tomb-painting 

Plate VII, facing 23 

25. Sculptured Funeral Couch, picturing the soul by the corpse 23 

26. Osiris, Isis, and Hathor (bronze statues), Plate Will, facing 24 

27. Weighing the Soul before the Judges of the Dead 

Plate VIII, facing 24 

28. Thiitmosis III 25 

29. Modern Road to Pyramids of Gizeh . Plate IX, facing 26 

30. " Colossi of Memnon." Two views . . Plate X, facing 28 

31. Babylonian Boundary Stone, 2000 B.C. . ... .29 

32. Oldest Arch Known (Babylonian) 30 

vii 



Vlll ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAnr, 

3;i. Oholisk of SliMlm.incsor II 'S2 

34. Balnloiiian Lion (from the " Sacrod Way") ... 34 

35. Laws of Ilainniurapi ........ 35 

36. Babylonian " Delude Tablet " and " Cotilract Tablet " 

Plate XI, Jncirif/ 3H 

37. An Assyrian " Book " .... Plate XII. /r/r///// 37 

38. Babylonian Cylinder Seals 38 

39. Impre.^^sion from a Kin^;'s Seal ...... 30 

40. Reliefs from Assyrian Palaces Plate XIII, Jncittq 40 

41. Persian Gold Armlet 43 

42. Frieze of Lions from Palace of .Vrtaxer.xes Alemnon 

Plate XIV, Jacn,(i 14 

43. The Land of Goshen To-day 48 

44. Vase from Knossos, 2200 b-c 53 

45. Palace Sewer at Kno.ssos ....... 54 

46. The Vaphio Cups .... Plate XV, njicr 54 

47. Scroll from the Vaphio Cups Plate XVI, facinq Plate XV 

48. Cretan Writing of 2200 b.c 55 

49. Cretan Cooking Utensils 55 

50. Gate of the Lions at Mycenae 56 

51. Bronze Dagger from Mycenae, inlaid with gold . . .57 

52. Part of the Excavations at Troy 60 

53. Zeus 65 

54. Ruins of Stadium at Glympia and of That at Delphi 

Plate XVII, Jacnq (iO 

55. Attic Vase of the Sixth Century b.c 70 

56. Ground Plan of the Temple of The.scus at Athens 71 

57. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Columns . . .72 

58. A Doric Capital (from the Parthenon) .... 75 

59. " Temple of Theseus " (so-called) at Athens ... 79 

60. Site of Ancient Sparta and the Modern Cit>' 

Plate XVIII, fnanq S2 

61. Vale of Tempe Plate XIX, ./ac//<^ 85 

62. Greek Women at Their Music (Scroll from an .\ttic Vase) 88 

63. Plan of the Battle of Marathon 88 

64. Marathon To-day 89 

65. Athenian Youth in the Procession in Honor of .\thcnc (from 

the Parthenon frieze) 97 

66. Ruins of the Piraeus Walls 98 

67. Bay of Salamis 102 

68. Plan of the Acropolis of .\thens .... facinq 103 

69. The .'Xcropolis as " restored " by Lambert .... 103 

70. The Acropolis To-day .... Plate XX, facinq 106 

71. Sophocles (a portrait statue) ...... 108 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



IX 



72. 

73. 

74. 

75. 

76. 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 

81. 

82. 

83. 

84. 

85. 

86. 

87. 

88. 

89. 

90. 

91. 

92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 



PAGE 

Theater of Dionysus at Athens To-day Plate XXI, facing 109 

A Restoration of the Parthenon. Colored . . facing 

Greek Girls at Play (from a vase painting) . 

Plan of a Fifth-century Greek House 

Greek Women at Their Toilet (from a bowl painting) 

The Wrestlers (after Myron) .... 

Greek School Scenes (from a bowl painting) 

An Athenian Trireme ...... 

The Hermes of Praxiteles ..... 

Copy of Praxiteles' Satyr (" The Marble Faun ") 

Theater of Apollo at Delphi 

Parthenon and Erechtheum To-day . Plate XXII, facing 
Plan of the Battle of Leuctra .... 

PhiUp II of Macedon (from a gold medallion) 

Alexander the Great (two sides of the medallion of Tarsus) 

Public Buildings of Pergamos .... 

The Apollo Belvedere ...... 

Tower of Pharos (Alexandrian Lighthouse) . 
Venus (Aphrodite) of Melos .... 



Etruscan Vase 

Etruscan Tombs at Orvieto 

Temple of Vesta (so-called) 

Wall of Servius (so-called) . 

A Coin of Pyrrhus 

The Appian Way To-day 

Etruscan Ruins at Sutri 

Coin of Hiero II of Syracuse 

Excavations at Pompeii 

The Discus Thrower (Myron) 



Plate XXIII, facitig 

Plate XXIV, facing 
Plate XXV, facing 



106. 
107! 
108. 
109. 



Two Views of the Ruins of a Roman Villa 

Plate XXVI, facing 
Pompeian Remains: Temple of Apollo; House of the 

Vettii Plate XXVII, facing 

A Roman Holiday, with Procession. Colored (a modern 
painting) ........ facing 

Court of a Roman House (Boulanger's painting) 

Plate XXVIII, facing 
A Roman Chariot Race (a modern painting) 

Plate XXIX, facing 
Juhus Caesar (the British Museum bust) .... 

Views of the Roman Forum To-day . Plate XXX, facing 
The Theater at Pompeii ....... 

The Roman Forum and a " Restoration " (Benvenuti) 

Plate XXXI, facing 



112 
115 
117 
118 
121 
122 
124 
126 
128 
129 
130 
131 
134 
138 
140 
141 
142 
143 
149 
152 
153 
155 
162 
166 
170 
177 
180 
185 

186 

188 

193 

197 

200 
206 
207 

208 

210 



X ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAOE 

110. Aumistiis Cnosar (tlio V:itio:\n statiio) 212 

111. The C:i:iii(li:in Aquoduct To-day . . Plate XXXII, /r/r/,/7 213 

112. Tlio Mroiizc " Janus " Coin of Nero 214 

1 1'A. Triiini|)lial .Vrch of Titus (showing also the Colosseum) 

Plate XXXIU. faring 21o 

111. Detail from .\rcli of Titus 215 

115. Detail from Trajin's Column 21(i 

lit). Trajan's Column (commemorating the Dacian conquest) 

Plate XXXIV. /aa«f7 210 

117. Ruin of Hadrian's Temple to Zeus at Athens 21S 

118. Aqueduct near Ntmes, built by Antoninus Pin- . . 220 

119. Porta Nigra at Trier (Treves) 222 

120. Cross-section of the Pantheon 225 

121. The Pantheon To-day . . . Plate XXXV. /an/zf/ 225 

122. The "Way of Tombs" at Pompeii . Plate XXXVI, fncir>{j 226 

123. Marcus Aurelius (the Capitoline bust ) .... 227 

124. Views of the Colosseum . . Plate XXXVII, facing 228 

125. Trajan's Arch at Beneventum Plate XXXVIII. facing 229 

126. Roman Amphitheater at Nimes . Plate XXXIX, /aci/w7 232 

127. Serfs in Roman Gaul 234 

128. Imperial Rody-guard of Germans ''Marcus Aurelius) 236 

129. Arch of Constantine at Rome 239 

130. Constantine's Column at Con.stantinople .241 

131. Plan of a Basilica 242 

132. Constantine's Basilica, and a '' Restoration " 

Plate XL, Jacnig 242 

133. Roman Coins ......... 243 

134. Ruins of the " Palace of the Caesars," and Benvenuti's 

"Restoration" .... Plate XLI, /an /<<7 245 

135. Tomb of Hadrian (as a memorial of the \'andal sack of 

Rome) Plate XLII, faring 246 

136. .\ Roman Temple at Nimes (well preserved) 247 

137. Silver Coin of Justinian ....... 24S 

138. Trial by Combat (two views from fifteenth-century MS.) 249 

139. Seventh-century Villa (wood) in Gaul, "restored" by 

Parmentier ....... 250 

110. The Abbey of Citeaux 252 

111 S.iracenic Walls of .Jerusalem ami the Damascus Gate 

Plate XLIII. facing 254 

112. Cloisters of St. John's L.ateran 257 

143. Seal of Charlemagne 259 

144. Silver Coin of Cliarlemagne ...... 2(il 

145. Conway Castle 265 

146. Remains of a Viking Ship 266 



ILLUSTRATIONS XI 

PAGE 

St. Martin's Church (near Canterbury) . . , . 268 



Plowing, from an Anglo-Saxon Manuscript 
Entrance to a Feudal Castle (after Gautier) 
Bodlam Castle ..... 

Knight in Plate Armor ; from Lacroix 
Reaper's Cart ; fourteenth century 
Falconry ...... 

A Court Jester ..... 

Medieval Jugglers in Sword Dance 
The Quintain ..... 

Doorway of IfHey Church (Norman architecture) 



Salisbury Cathedral .... Plate XLIV, facing 282 

Battle of Hastings (Bayeux Tapestry) .... 284 

Facsimile of Magna Carta, Sections 39, 40 . . . . 286 

Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral 288 

An English Family Dinner (MS. of fourteenth century) . 289 

Court of Lions in the Alhambra . . Plate XLV, facing 294 



A Byzant 

Crusader Taking the Vow 

Siege of a Medieval Town 



268 
269 
270 
271 

274 
275 

276 

277 
278 
282 



295 
295 

298 



Town Hall at Oudenarde (13th century), Plate XL VI, facing 298 

A Medieval Cooper's Shop 300 

Old Street in Rouen ; present condition 

Plate XL VII, facing 300 

Workshop of Etienne Delaulne (16th century goldsmith) . 302 

Flying Buttresses, Norwich Cathedral .... 304 
Rheims Cathedral (with explanation of Gothic style) 

Plate XLVIII, after 304 
Cathedral at Metz ; interior of nave 

Plate XLIX, facing Plate XLVIII 

A Bombard (sixteenth-century woodcut) . . . . 305 

A Luxurious English Carriage (fourteenth century) . . 308 

Parliament of 1399 . 310 

Guy's Tower 311 

Joan of Arc at Orleans .... Plate L, facing 312 

Church of St. Sophia, Constantinople . Plate LI, facing 317 
Hall of the Clothmakers' Gild at Ypres . . . .318 
Illustration from Fifteenth-century Manuscript (showing 

historical characters) . . . Plate LII, /acmgr 319 

Ca d'Oro at Venice and Ducal Palace . Plate LIII, facing 322 

St. Mark's, Venice .... Plate LIV, facing 323 

Erasmus (Holbein) 323 

Columbus before Isabella (Brozik). Colored . facing 326 

Monk Teaching the Globe (thirteenth century) . , . 326 



MAPS 

MAP PAGE 

1. Ancient Egypt 10 

2. The First Homes of Civilization. Colored . . facing 18 

3. Greatest Extent of the Egyptian Empire .... 26 

4. Babylonian and Assyrian Empires ..... 33 

5. Lydia, Media, Assyria, Babylonia. Colored . facing 38 

6. The Persian Empire. Colored .... facing 42 

7. The Empire of Solomon (the Syrian District) . . .50 

8. Greece and the Adjoining Coasts. Colored . . . after 52 

9. The Greek World (showing all Mediterranean coasts). 

Colored after 70 

10. Attica (with special reference to Marathon and Salamis) . 94 

11. Athens 101 

12. Growth of Macedonia 133 

13. Empire of Alexander (with routes of his campaigns). Colored 

facing 135 

14. The World according to Eratosthenes (about 250 B.C.) . . 146 

15. Ancient Italy (for general reference). Colored . facing 148 

16. Rome and Vicinity ........ 150 

17. Rome under the Kings ........ 151 

18. Italy about 200 b.c. (showing Roman colonies and roads) . 168 

19. Mediterranean Lands at Time of Second Punic War (showing 

route of Hannibal). Colored after 176 

20. Pompeii and Vicinity in 79 A. D. . . Plate XXIV, /aci/?^ ISO 

21. The Roman Empire (showing stages of growth, and main 

roads). Colored after 218 

22. Rome under the Empire (showing walls of Aurelian) . . 230 

23. Teutonic Kingdoms on Roman Soil, 500 a.d. Colored 

after 248 

24. Kingdom of the Merovingians. Colored . . facing 253 

25. Europe in 814 a.d. Colored after 260 

26. Fields of History to 800 a.d ' 264 

27. The Division of Verdun (843 A.D.) . Colored . facing 205 

xiii 



Xiv MAPS 

MAI' PAGE 

2S. Knuland aiul tlie Danelagh (900 a.d.) . facing 268 

29. KiiKland and France at Four Periods. Colored facing 290 
.SO. (Icnnaii Colonization (>n the East, 800-1400. Colored 

faring 202 

:il. C.ennaiiy and Italy, 1254-1273. Colored fiiring 29(1 
;}2. Doniiiiioiis of tlu> Ilaiisa and 'rciitonic Knights. Colored 

after 302 

33. (lermany about 1500. Colored after 314 

34. Europe in the Time of Charles V. Colored . facing 320 



SHORT HISTORY 
OF EARLY PEOPLES 



PART I - THE WORLD BEFORE THE GREEKS 



CHAPTER I 



MEN BEFORE WRITING 

The story of man goes back to a time when he was more The first 
helpless and brutelike than the lowest savage in the world to- °^®" 
day. His only clothing was the 
coarse hair that covered his body. 
He had neither fire nor knife, — no 
tools or weapons except his hands, 
his formidable apelike teeth, and 
chance clubs or stones. Finally 
some savage discovered that he 
could chip flakes from a flint stone 
by striking it with other stones, 
so as to give it a sharp edge and 
a convenient shape for the hand 
to grasp. This invention lifted 
man into the first Stone Age. 

In Europe the Stone Age began 
at least 100,000 years ago. The 
mighty rivers of still earlier times 
had washed out many caverns in 
their limestone banks. As the 
waters cut down a deeper bed, 
such caves were left dry, above 
the new water level ; and they 
became the favorite shelter of the 
early Stone-Age man — though he 
often had to fight for them with 

the ferocious cave-bear. By digging in these caves to-day, we 
find stone tools of the "cave-man" where he dropped them 

1 





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§ 



The first 
Stone Age, 
100,000 
years ago 



Flint Fist-hatchet (six inches 
long) from Kent's Cave in 
Southern England, found in 
the lowest of several distinct 
layers of deposits. Such tools 
have been discovered in nearly 
all parts of the world. 



STONE-AGE MEN 



The 
fire-makers 



Tools of the 
cave-man 



And 

his domestic 

animals 



Hunters, 
not farmers 



oil thr cartli floor — p('rlia|)s tliirty or forty feet l)el()\v the 
present Hoor — and rcinaiiis of "ireat heajjs of the l)ones of 
the animals he ate. 

In ahnost the lowest deposits many jjicees of eharred bone 
and wood, and some solid layers of ashes, show that men 
learned to use fire soon after reaching the Stone Age. With 
their siour knives, they could shape sticks so as to make fire 
hy friction. Witli his knife, too, tlic ca\-c-nian could remove 
the hides from tlie animals he killed ; and while he dozed hy 
the fire after j]jorging on their flesh, his cave-woman worked 
on these skins with stone scrapers. Then when they were 
cleaned and dried and softened, she sewed them into clothing 
with hone needles. The early deposits contain no spindles, 
with which thread could ha\e hccn spun from vegetable fiber, 
and so these needlc\s must have been threaded with finely di- 
vided sinew, such as the Eskimo woman uses to-day. 

As we examine the layers of deposits /ro//; fhe bottom upward, 
we find better tools and more kinds of them, until we have a 

great variety of shapely 



^^=-.-==3' 



IvuHY Nekdlf.s of tho Stone Age. Europe 
had no bett >r needles until some three 
liundrcd years afro. 



flint Jniives, spcar-heads, 
daqqers, scrapers, chisels, 
and drills fine enough to 
make the delicate eyes in 
the bone needles. Toward 
the close of the age, the 
cave dwellers learned to 
make claii pots, in which to cook their food in new ways, and 
to make earthen irare hunps, with wicks swimming in fat. 
Next, l)one and stone arroir-heads show that the how had been 
invented, to lengthen man'., arm. Man began, too, to make 
living animals serve him. He tamed the young of wolf or 
jackal into th< first dog: and his drawings show that he taught 
the reindeer to draw his sled. 

Hut through all their tens of thousands of years, the Chipped 
.^tone men were hunters merely. They never learned to farm. 
Besides the animals they killed, tb.ey had for food only the 
nuts and roots and ^ee(N the women ami children gathered. 



PLATE I 





Above. — Cliff Caves on the Vez^re, overlooking the modern village Le 
Moustier in Southern France. From some of the caves whose dark 
mouths show in this cut have come the oldest remains pictured in this 
book. One can make out two terraces. The second of these also is 
rich in remains, because here the ancient hunters had a station, out in 
the sun, to fashion their flint weapons. More than 150 of these cave 
homes have been discovered in France and Spain. — From Osborn's Men 
of the Old Stone Age. 

Below- — Mammoth engraved by an Old Stone Age artist on a piece of 
ivory tusk. Foimd in a cave in Southern France. — From Parkyn's Pre- 
historic Art. The student should examine that work, or Mr. Osborn's 
book referred to above, forCave-Men drawings of the Saber-Toothed Tiger 
and of the Cave-Bear, and especially for the colored representations of 
Stone Age paintings, such as cannot be adequately reproduced in a book 
of this kind. The Stone Age remains in the caves show that the men of 
that day feasted upon these and other animals now long extinct in Europe. 



LIFE AND THOUGHTS 3 

Their homes were littered with loathsome heaps of rotting 
refuse. Their numbers must have been scanty, but it seems 
probable that in places the^^ had learned to combine into 
groups somewhat larger than the family. 

No doubt the early groups often drifted slowly north or 
south with the seasons, in pursuit of their food. If two dif- 
ferent sorts of men met in such wanderings, they probably 
fought one another savagely — possibly even hunting one 




Reindeer graven on stone by a Stone-Age artist. Note the remarkable 
spirit and accurate detail. The drawing is full life size. From a cave 
in Southern France — where the reindeer has been extinct for many 
thousand years. 



another's children for food. The terrifying tales of giants 
and goblins among all primitive peoples have some such 
origin. 

The earliest cave-man must have believed in a life after death ; ideas of a 
for he buried the bodies of those he loved and honored under ^^^^^^ ^^*® 
the hearth before which they had rested in life, and in the 
shallow grave he placed food and precious weapons ready for 
use when the dead should awake in the spirit world. The 
cave-man, too, had a keen interest in the world about him, and 



STONE-AGE MEN 



The second 
Stone Age 



^flft^rrmfJ'^^^^ 



Cave-artists fell much ot" its hcaiit \ . In stormy s<'as()ns lie amused him- 
self l)y carviui;" nii the walls of his caxcni or on Hat hones. 
Witli amazing' acc-iiracy \\c r('i)ro(lu('('([ the ficrt'c wild-hoar in 
the char.i;i', the mare nourishin*; her foal, a herd of deer hrows- 
iiiii" hy a i)e;ieeful i)()ol, and eouiitless othei" animal forms. .\s 
Kij)lin^- writes, — 

"Later he pictured an aurochs — later he pictured a bear — 
Pictured the saber-toothed tiger dra^;p;in{!; a man to his lair — 
Pictured the mountainous mannnoth, hairy, abiiorrent, alone — 
Out of the love thdt he bore them, scribing them clearly on bone." 

Finally, some ten thousand years ii^^o, some infi:eni()us 
l)ari)arian discovered that lie coidd grind his stone knife with 

certain stones, 
and so get keener 
edge and sharper 
point than merely 
hy chipping at 
it. This inven- 
tion began a new 
era. The "Old 
Stone Age," or 
age of chipped 
stone, ga\e way 

to the " N e w 
\ 1 i:\vs OF \ Pkehistouic Paint Tcbr. of reindeer hone. , * »» 

I'ound. with ocher still in it. in ;i eave in France, '^tonc Age. 
The ra\e-artist ground fine the red oxide of iron and '^l"'|i(> <'"round iui- 
othcr clay.s and jiaeked them in hollow horn.s, from . 
whieli to rnlnr hi.s drawings. (Cf. Irgcnd for the P I e lU C n t S are 
Mammoth after page 2.) — From Parkyn's Prehistoric niore beautiful in 

finish than those 
of the older age, and iiiiirh niorr rffrrfirr. 

The Xew-Stone men nnuh^ gains more rapidly than had 
been possible to their predeeessf)rs. They soon became herds- 
men, with cows, asses, sheep, and goats; and some races 
among them grew into /r/r///rr.v. ScmmIs gathered by the women 
for food must often have (ln)i)j)ed near the home, and some 
of these must now and then ha\ c grown into i)lants and ])roduced 
new ^eed. The convenience of so gathering seeds at the door, 




PLATE II 





Stonkiiknuk. — From Barclay's Bun'rtl TonpU. Above arc pictured tho 
ruins as they stand to-tlay. Bolow is Barclay's " restoration." Stonc- 
henne was a " temple " of the Xew-Stone men on what is now Salisbury 
Plain in South England- Two miles away is the site of a Stone-Age 
t<^)wn, and near by the traces of an ancient two-mile race course, where, 
no doubt, shf)utinK multitudes jostled one another. Some of these huge 
blrjcks (undres.sed stone) are .iO feet high, and must weigh two hundred 
Ums- This is only the most famous of many. sucIj ruins left I)y the New- 
Stone men in western Europe. 



AND WHAT THEY GAVE US 



Beginning of 
trade 



instead of searching for them through the forest, would suggest The first 
to some thoughtful woman the idea of "planting" seed, and *'"°^®^^ 
finally of preparing a patch of ground by stirring it with a 
crooked stick. Such a woman with 
such a "hoe " was probably the first 
"farmer." 

Thousands of farmers, even in a 
rude stage of agriculture, can live in 
a territory that could furnish food for 
only a few score of hunters ; and so 
the New-Stone "barbarians" dwelt no 
longer in isolated caves, but in villages 
and towns of simple one-room huts of 
clay or wood. With their improved 
weapons they conquered widely, espe- 
cially among the backward tribes that 
had remained in the "savagery" of 
the Chipped Stone Age; and so they 
formed larger societies with some trade 
between one and another. 

Now that captives could be used 
to watch herds and till the soil, the 
vanquished in war were no longer killed 
or tortured to death as formerly, but 
were merely made slaves. And as the 
growing populations called for larger 
grain fields than women could till with 
their stick "hoes," the hoe handle was 
enlarged into a "beam" to which 
cows could be harnessed, and two new 

handles were added to guide the "plow." In regions not 
particularly fitted for agriculture, the New-Stone men some- 
times turned to the life of nomadic herdsmen. These nomads 
were less numerous than the farmer folk, and more thinly 
scattered. But they were more suited to war and they were 
particularly inclined at times, issuing from the desert regions 
or the steppes, to raid the richer farmer folk — and sometimes 




Arrow-heads of the New 
Stone Age in Britain. 



6 



STONE-AGE MEN 



The Age of 
Copper in 
the Nile 
valley 



to coiujucr and settle aiiioiiL;- tlieiii. Mueli of ])rimitlve man's 
life went to such wars. 

The next threat advance was hcf^nin, not in Europe, hut in 
the Nile \ alley in Africa. Pieces of malachite, a kind of copper 
ore, are found there in a loose state. No douht many a camp- 
fire melted ("reduced") the metal from such scattered stones 
into shining; copper globules; and finally some observant 





Primitivf- Hoe and Plow. — From early Egyptian monuments. 



The Bronze 
Age 



hunter found that the bright metal could be worked more 
easily than stone, and into better tools. So men passed from 
the Stone Age to the Age of Metals, ahont seven thousand yairs 
ago. 

Copper implements, it is true, were soft, and soon lost their 
edge; but l)efore long, perhaps again by happy accident, men 
learned to mix a little tin with tlu> copper in the fire. This 
formed the metal we call hnntzr. Bronze is easily worked ; 
but, after cooling, it is much harder than either of its parts. 
The Bronze-Age men equipped themsehcs with weapons 
of keener and more lasting edg(\ and more convenient form, 
than had ever been known. With these they concpiered widely 
among the Stone- Age men ai)out them, and also added greatly 
to their command over nature. The use of bronze entered 
southeastern Europe some oOOO years ago — about IWOO B.C. 
— and spread slowly westward to the .\tlantic during the next 
thousand years. 

Soon after the age of metals began, men came to use some 
kind of wriiinfj. That inxcntion brings us to the "historic" 
period. The t^irlier "prehistoric" man, with many other 
gifts, had becjueathed to his successors, and to us, four supreme 
contributions. 



AND WHAT THEY GAVE US 7 

1. The use of fire made it possible to advance beyond raw Contribu- 

food and finally beyond stone tools. All wild animals fear *^°"f. /^^."^ 
•^ . . prehistonc 

flame; but the Stone-Age man had come to know it for his man 

truest friend. The methods of making fire which are pictured 

on this page (below) were all invented by prehistoric man ; 




Some Stages in FiRE-i\iAKiNG. — From Tylor. 



and no other way was known, except striking two stones to- 
gether, down to very recent times. 

2. Most of the domestic animals familiar to us in our barn- 
yards were tamed by prehistoric man in the Old World. 

3. Wheat, barley, rice, and nearly all our other important 
food grains and garden vegetables, were selected from the myriads 
of wild plants, and cultivated and developed. Modern science 
has failed to find one other plant in the Old World so useful 
to man as these which prehistoric man there selected. Their 
only rivals are the potato and maize ("corn"), which the Stone- 
Age men in America had learned to cultivate. 

4. The invention of ivriting multiplied the value of language, xhe inven- 
Writing is an "artificial memory," and it also makes it possible f^^ ^^ w"*' 
for us to speak to those w^ho are far away, and even to those not 
yet born. Many early peoples used a picture writing such as 
is common still among North American Indians. In this kind 
of writing, a picture represents either an object or some idea 
connected with that object. A drawing of an animal w^th 
wings may stand for a bird or for flying ; or a character like 
this O stands for either the sun or for light. In our Arabic 
numerals, especially in l,Z»3,5, we can still see the one, two, 
three, or five lines that stood for numbers. 



ing 



8 



STONE-AGE MEN 



The rebus 
stage of 
writing 



N'astly iini)()rt;int is the juKancc to ;i rrJ}n.s .sfagc of writing. 
Here ii symlx)! has coiuc to have a sound raluc wholly apart 
tVoin tlie original ohjcct, as if the syinhol O ahove were used 
with 1) (1) O) to make the word (hli(jht. Tliis representation 
of sifllahlrs hy pietures of objects is tlie first stage in .sound 
ivritincf, as distinguished from ])ieture writing proper. 

Finally, some of tliese characters are used to represent not 
whole syllables, hut siuf/lc sounds. Such a character we call 
a letter. If these letters are kept, and all other characters 
dropped, we have a true (dpluthrf. Picture writing, such as that 
of the Chinese, reciuires numy thousand symbols. Several 
hundred characters are necessary for even simple syllabic writing. 
B\i{ a score or so of letters are enough for an alphabet. 

Students will enjoy any of the following books: Myres' Dawn of His- 
tory, 13-28; Clodd's Story of Pritnitive Man, 35-76; C'lodd's Story of 
the Alphabet; Hollirook's Cavr, Mound, and Lake Dwdlers: Waterloo's 
Story of Ab (fiction). A very interesting larger book, handsomely illus- 
trated, is Solas' Ancient Hunters. 




Flint Schaper. front and back, found in the lower deposits of the cave of 
Lc Moustier in Southern France, one of the oldest homes of man. — 
Fioni Parkyn's Prehistoric Art. 



CHAPTER II 
BRONZE-AGE MEN IN EGYPT 

Egypt is the gift of the Nile. — Herodotus. 

By the map, Ancient Egypt is as large as Colorado, but seven 
eighths of it is only a sandy border to the real Egypt. That real 
Egypt is smaller than Maryland, and consists of the valley of the 
Nile and of its delta. 

The valley proper forms Upper Egypt. It is a strip of rich soil 
about 600 miles long and 20 miles wide — a slim oasis between 
parallel ranges of desolate limestone hills which once formed the 
banks of a mightier Nile. While yet a hundred miles from the 
sea, the narrow valley broadens suddenly into the delta, — a 
squat triangle resting on a two-hundred mile base of marshy 
coast. This Lower Egypt has been built up out in the sea from 
the mud carried there by the river. 

And the Nile keeps Egypt alive. Rain falls rarely in the val- 
ley ; and toward the close of the eight cloudless months between 
the annual overflows, there is a short time when the land seems 
gasping for water. Then the river begins to rise (in July), 
swollen by tropical rains at its upper course in distant Abyssinia ; 
and it does not fully recede into its regular channel until Novem- 
ber. During the days w^hile the flood is at its height (some 
thirty feet above the ordinary level), Egypt is a sheet of turbid 
water, spreading between two lines of rock and sand. The 
waters are dotted w^ith towns and villages, and marked off 
into compartments by raised roads, running from town to 
town. As the water retires, a thin but rich loam dressing, 
brought dow^n from the hills of Ethiopia, is left spread over 
the fields, renewing their wonderful fertility from year to 
year; while the long soaking supplies moisture to the soil 
for the dry months to come. 

9 



10 



RROXZK-AOK MEX IX EGYPT 



-^>v^: 



Nam-niti 
PyramiUs of i .i.-uh \^A Hiliol 

Mciiinliis] 



± »• 






IcniplnsIS , ( V >^ 1 



I I' I* K U 




K fl Y P T 



'V\\v oldest records yet found in P'^,\\ l)t reach hack to al)out 
5000 B.C. The use of l)roir/e was ah\'ady well advanced, })Ut 
n'lnains in the soil show that there had been earlier dwellers 

in the valley usin^ 
rude stone inii)h'- 
nients. Food wa.s 
abundant there, — 
not only fish and 
waterfowl, l)ut also 
the date i)ahn and 
various wild ^n-ains. 
The first J}j^ \ ' The first inhabit- 

Egyptians j //> ,\ ants lived by fishing 

along the streams 
and hunting fowl 
in the marshes. 
When they began 
to take advantage 
of their rare oppor- 
tunity for agricul- 
ture, new problems 
arose. Before that 
time, each tribe or 
\illage could be a 
law to itself. But 
now it becar.K' nec- 
essary for whole 
districts tocombine 
in order to drain 
marshes, to create systems of ditches for the distribution of 
the water, and to build reservoirs for the surplus. 

The Thus till Xlh, which had made the land, plaj/cd (i pari in 

Nile makes 



ThVr:::50-< 



ANCIENT 
K(; V PT 



^*-'^,/l. ELEPHANTINE VJ 



■r-<4. 



' ..^^l 



V E T H I O 'Vf^C'\\t^ A 



for union 



initl'nuj Kfij/pf info om sftiti .^ To control the o\crflow was th( 



' Tlio Word ■state" i.s coiniiionlN used in luston" not in the sense in which 
we call Massachusetts a state, hut rather in that .sense in which we call Eng- 
land or the whole United States a state. That is. the word means a people, 
livin(j in s(it7ir dtfinitr ))lacc, with a s}i})r<mr qorernwnit of its oxm. 



PLATE III 





The Tkmple of thk Gods Hoius and Haihor (see Plate \I1I) at Eufi' 
(a vilhiRo south of Thebos), one of the best preserved Ejo'ptian temples. 
In the first view we look toward the pi/lon, or entrance (corresiK)n(iinK to 
the triumphal arch of the Romans). The second view is taken from the 
pylon, and shows the ruins of much of the structun'. The rohnniis are 
almost as tall as those shown (on a larger scale) in Plato IV. 



"THE GIFT OF THE NILE" 11 

first common interest of all the people. At first, no doubt 
through wasteful centuries, separate villages strove only to get 
each its needful share of water, without attention to the needs 
of others. The engravings on early monuments show neigh- 
boring villages waging bloody w^ars along the dikes, or on the 
canals, before they learned the costly lesson of cooperation. 
Such hostile action, cutting the dams and destroying the reser- 
voirs year by year, was ruinous. From an early period, men 
in the Nile valley must have felt the need of agreement and of 
political union — as men the world over are beginning to feel 
it now. 

Accordingly, before history begins, the multitudes of villages 
had combined into about forty petty states. Each one ex- 
tended from side to side of the valley and a few miles up and 
down the river; and each was ruled by a "king." Then the 
same forces w^hich had w^orked to unite villages into states 
tended to combine the many small states into a few larger ones. 
x\fter centuries of conflict, Mencs, prince of Memphis, united the 
petty principalities around him into one kingdom (3400 B.C.). 

The king was worshiped as a god by the mass of the people. Kings, 

His title, Pharaoh, means The Great House, — as the title of i^o^'es, 

. lonests 

the supreme ruler of Turkey in modern times has been The 

Sublime Porte (Gate). The title implied that the ruler was to 
be a refuge for his people. The pharaoh became the absolute 
owner of the soil, in return for protecting it by dikes and 
reservoirs. This ownership helped to make him absolute 
master of the inhabitants also. His authority was limited only 
by the power of the priests and by the necessity of keeping 
ambitious nobles friendly. 

Part of the land the king kept in his own hands, to be culti- 
vated by peasants under the direction of royal stewards ; part he 
parceled out among the nobles, who >vere little kings, each in his 
own domain ; and about a third he turned over to the temples 
to support the worship of the gods. This land became the 
property of the priests, of whom a large number lived in each 
temple. The priests were also the scholars of Egypt, and the 
pharaoh took most of his high officials from them. 



12 



BROXZK ACK M KX IX K(JVPT 



The 
peasants 



T\w prd.suDifs tilled {\\v soil, and wvvc not unlike the jjeasants 
of modern l\u>|)t. They rented small "farms," — hardly 
moic than uarden plots. — for which they j)ai(l at least a third 

of the prochice to 
the hmdlord. This 
left too little for a 
family ; and they 
eked ont a lixcli- 
hood l)y day labor 
on the land of the 
nobles and priests. 
For this work they 
were paid a small 
part of the prod- 
is our farmers tlo, 
hut in little villages or in the squalid (juarters of the towns, 
with the other poorer peo])le. 

The house of a poor man was a mud hovel of only one room. 
Such huts were separated from one another merely by (Hie mud 




A Capital FitoM Kaknak. — Set' opposite- 
uce. Thev did not live in the country 




All I''.Kyi)ti;ui rcliof' 



])artition. and wei'e Imilt in lon<; rows, facing upon narrow 
crooked alleys filled with filth. (A " i)la.uue of flies," like tliat 
described in the Old Testament, was natm-al enough; and only 
the extremely dry air ke])t down that and worse pestilences.) 
Hours of toil were from dawn to dark ; but usuall\ the ])easants 
were careless and kJ'>'. ix'ttini; the cattle an<l sin^'ing at their 
^ A " relief " is a picc-r nf .sfulptun- only partl\ <iii i\vm\- fnnii the rock. 



PLATE IV 




Ruins of the 'Hall of Columns" in the Temple of Ammon at 
Karnak (^500 B.C.). This temple was a maze of huge halls and courts 
jomed by lofty corridors. This one hall had 134 columns in 16 rows, the 
central ones being 66 feet high. The " capitals " do not show clearly in 
this cut, but many of them are exceedingly beautiful, shaped hke vast 
inverted bells and ornamented with carvings of the lotus in full bloom 
(p. 12). A full company of soldiers might stand upon one of those capi- 
tals. (Compare these ruins with Stonehenge, Plate II.) The ^obelisk in 
the background (carved from a single block of stone) was 75 feet high 
and 8^ feet in diameter at the base. The student can estimate roughly 
the size of the columns, and of the reliefs upon them, by comparison with 
the human figure in the background. 



CLASSES OF PEOPLE 13 

work. Probably they were quite as well off as the like class 
has been in Egypt or Russia during the past century. Their 
chief fear was of the royal taxes. The peasant was held re- 
sponsible for them with all that he owned. If he could not pay 
otherwise, he "paid with his body" with forced work in the 
canals or in the royal mines. 

In the towns there were a few merchants, physicians, master- The 
builders, and notaries (to draw up business papers and so on), and ^ ^^' 
a larger class of artisans. At the base of society, even worse 
off than the peasants, were the unskilled laborers, whose condi- 
tion was little better than that of slaves. Toilers on the canals 
and pyramids were kept to their tasks by the whip. "Man ^^^ 
has a back" was a favorite proverb. 

The soldiers were a class by themselves, with special privi- Sold 
leges. They paid no taxes, and each one held a farm of some 
eight acres — four times as large as the ordinary peasant's farm. 
(Besides this professional soldiery, the peasants were drafted 
in herds for war, on occasion, as they were also for other royal 
enterprises.) 

Until the seventh century B.C. the Egyptians had no money. OflSi 
Thus the immense royal revenues, as well as all debts between 
private men, had to be collected " in kind." The tax-collectors 
and treasurers had to receive geese, ducks, cattle, grain, wine, 
oil, metals, jewels, — " all that the heavens give, all that the 
earth produces, all that the Nile brings from its mysterious 
sources," as one inscription puts it. To do this called for an 
army of royal officials, organized in many grades. Each great 
noble, too, had to have a large class of trustworthy servants. 

The son usually followed the father 's occupation ; but there The 
was no law (as in some Oriental countries) to prevent his pass- 
ing into a different class. Sometimes the son of a poor herds- 
man rose to wealth and power. Such advance was most easily 
open to the scribes. This learned profession was recruited from 
the brightest boys of the middle and lower classes. Most of 
the scribes found clerical work only ; but from the ablest ones 
the nobles chose confidential secretaries and stewards ; and 
some of these, who showed special ability, were promoted by 



14 



BRONZE-AGE MEN IN EGYPT 



the pharaohs to tlio highest (li^niitics in tlic land. Sucli men 
founded new families and reinf(jrced tlie ranks of the nol)iHt\ . 
For the well-to-do, life was a very deli^ditful thin^, filled 
the wealthy ^^.j^|, aeti\e emi)loyment and \ari('d with many pleasures. Their 
homes were roomy houses with a wooden frame j)lastered over 
with sun-dried elav. LiLdit and air entered at the many lattieed 



Lite of 




Egyptian Noble Hunting Waterfowl with a "throw-stick" or boomer- 
ang. The wife aroompanies hor hiislKind, and the boat contains also a 
"decf)y" bird. The wild l)irds rise from a mass of papjTUs reeds. — 
From an Eg\ptian toml) paintiiiir now in tlic Britisli Museum. 



windows, where, howeNcr, curtains of brilliant hues shut out 
the oeeasional sand storms from the desert. Ahout the house 
stretched a lar^'c hi.udi-walh-d uardcn with artificial fish-]X)nds 
gleaming amoti^ the ])alm trees. 

The position of women was better than in modern Oriental 



PT.ATE y 





■4 




K 




Pykamiijs AM) THK SpHiNX. — Tlic huniaii lu>;ul 1.1 tl,, -pliinx. with the 
niaKiiifiod featuros of one of tlie phara<ihs, is sot upon {\\r body of a 
lion, as a symbol of power. 



THE PYRAMID BUILDERS 15 

countries. The poor man's wife spun and wove, and ground Position of 
grain into meal in a stone bowl with another stone. Among ^°°^^" 
the upper classes, the wife was the companion of the man. 
She was not shut up in a harem or confined strictly to house- 
hold duties ; she appeared in company and at public ceremonies. 
She possessed equal rights at law, and could own and dispose of 
property ; and sometimes great queens ruled upon the throne. 
In no other country, until modern times, do pictures of happy 
home life play so large a part. 

For a thousand years (3400 to 2400 B.C.), the capital remained The " Old 

at Memphis. This period is known as that of the "Old Kinq- kingdom," 
, . . 3400-2400 

dom.^' Its kings are remembered best for the pyramids, which B.C. 

they built for their tombs. The pyramids are merely exag- 
gerated developments, in stone, of earth burial mounds such as 
some American Indians and many other Stone-Age men have 
erected for their chieftains' graves. But the immense size of 
these buildings in Egypt, and the skill shown in constructing 
them, has always placed them among the wonders of the world. 

The largest is known as the Great P^Tamid. It was built 
by King Khufu (known till lately as Cheops) more than 3000 
years B.C., and it is far the most massive building in the world. 
Its base covers thirteen acres, and it rises 481 feet from the 
plain. More than two million huge stone blocks went to make 
it, — more stone than has gone into any other building in the 
world. Some single blocks weigh over fifty tons ; but the 
edges of the blocks that form the faces are so polished, and so 
nicely fitted, that the joints can hardly be detected ; and the 
interior chambers, with long, sloping passages between them, are 
built with such skill that, notwithstanding the immense weight 
above them, there has been no perceptible settling of the walls 
in the lapse of five thousand years. 

Herodotus, a Greek historian of the fifth century B.C., traveled 
in Egypt and learned all that the priests of that day could tell 
him regarding these wonders. He tells us that it took thirty 
years to build the Great Pyramid, — ten of those years going 
to piling the vast mounds of earth, up which the mighty stones 



16 



HliOXZK-AGF. MKX IX EGYPT 



The Middle 
Kingdom. 
2400 2000 
B. C. 



wvvc to !)(.' (Iraggrd into j)lac(', — ^vl)i(•ll niouiuls had atlcrwards 
to \)v vvuxnwil. During tlio.s(> tliirty years, relays of a liuiidred 
thousand men were kept at tlie toil, eaeh relay for three months 
at a streteh. Other thousands, of course, had to toil throuj^h a 
lifetime of lahor to feed these workers on a monument to a 
nionareh's vanity. .1// the lahor iras performed hi/ mere fnnncui 
.strenfjfh: the K^yi)tians of that day had no beasts of burden, 
and no machinery, such as we have, for inovin^^ ^n-eat weights 
with ease. 

The vain and cruel pyramid l)uilders were finally overthrown 
l)y a rebellion, and a new line of kin^s took Thel)es for their 
capital. The next four hundred years (2400-2000 B.C.) is 
known as the period of the ''Middle Kingdom.'' It is marked 
by the extension (ind el(d)or(ifion of the irrigation sj/ston. Besides 
caring for the old dykes, the ])haraohs now drained tens of thou- 
sands of acres of marsh, making it fit for rich cultivation, and 
on tlu^ other hand, they built a wonderful system of vast arti- 
ficial reservoirs to hold the surplus water of the yearly inunda- 
tion — with an intricate network of ditches and "gates" (as 
in some of our Western States now) to distribute the water 
throughout the country in the dry months. \Vith this aid, 
more soil was cultivated, and a larger po])ulation supported, 
in ancient Kgypt than in any modern period until English con- 
trol was estal)lish(Ml in that countrv some forty years ago. 



Agriculture 



The main industry was farming. The leading grains were 
wheat, barley, and sesame. Even the large farms were treated 
almost like gardens ; and the yield was enormous, — reaching 
the rate of a hundredfold for grain. Long after her greatness 
had departed, Egyj)t remained "the granary of the Mediterra- 
nean lands." Other food croj)s wvrv beans, peas, lettuce, rad- 
ishes, melons, cucumbers, and onions, (irapes, t«)o, were gr(nvn 
in great (juantitics. and made into a light wine. Clox'er was 
raised foi- the cattle, an<l flax for th(> linen cloth, which was the 
main material for clothing. .\ little cotton, also, was cultivated ; 
and large flocks of sheep furnished wool. 

Besides th(> plow, th(> farmer's only tools were a short, crooked 



LIFE AND WORK 



17 



hoe (the use of which bent him ahnost double) and the sickle. 
The grain was cut with this last implement, then carried in 
baskets to a threshing floor, and trodden out by cattle. 

An Egyptian barnyard contained many animals familiar to 
us (cows, sheep, goats, scrawny pigs much like the wild hog, 
geese, ducks, and pigeons), and also a number of others like 
antelopes, gazelles, and storks. Men had to learn by carejul 
experiment, through many generations of animal life, which ani- 
mals it paid best to domesticate. 

During most of Egypt's three thousand years of greatness, 
exchange in her market places was by barter. A peasant with 




A Market Scene. — An Egyptian relief. Tiie admirable description of 
Egyptian markets in Davis' Readings (I, No. 7) is based in part upon 
this sculpture. 

wheat or onions to sell squatted by his basket, while would-be 
customers offered him earthenware, vases, fans, or other objects 
with which they had come to buy, but which perhaps he did not 
want. In the closing periods of Egyptian history, the people 
came to use rings of gold and silver a little, somewhat as we 
use money ; but such rings had to be w^eighed each time they 
changed hands. 

In spite of this handicap, the Egyptians carried on exte7isive 
trade. Especially did the great Theban pharaohs of the " Middle 



18 



BK'OXZF.-AOE MEX IX KOVPT 



Manufac- 
ttires 



Kingdom" (MicoiUM^a' c'(iinin(M*('(\ explore distant regions, de- 
velop e()pj)er mines in the Sinai peninsula of Arabia, and huild 
roads. One ot" tlieni even ()j)ened a eanal from the eastern 
month of the Xile to the Red Sea, so estahlishin^ a eontinuous 
water route hetween the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. 
In that day, K^\ptian mereliants sailed to (Vete on the north 
and to distant i)arts of Ethiopia on the south. So far as we 
know, the Egyptians were the first men to "go down to the sea 
in ships," the first, indeed, to hnild sea-going ships at all. 

To pay for the precious products of distant countries, the 
Egyptian merchant exported the sur])lus j)r()duets of the 
skilled arfisaiis at home. This class included weavers, hlack- 
smiths, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, cahinet-makers, uphol- 
sterers, glass blowers, potters, shoemakers, tailors, armorers, 
and many other trades. In many of these occupations, the 
workers possessed a marvelous dexterity, and were masters 
of processes that are now unknown. The weavers in particular 
produced delicate and extjuisite linen, almost as fine as silk, 
and the workers in glass and gold were famous for their skill. 
Jewels were imitated in colored glass so artfully that only an 
expert to-day can detect the fraud by the appearance. Beau- 
tiful bowls and vases, and other sorts of pottery, were worked, 
no longer i)y hand, l)Ut on the potter's wheel — another Egyp- 
tian invention — and burned, not by an open fire, l)Ut evenly 
in closed brick ovens. 



Books and 
writing 



The Egyptians wrote religious books, poems, histories, 
travels, novels, orations, treatises on morals, scientific works, 
geographies, cook-books, catalogues, and collections of fairy 
stories — among the last a tale of an Egyj)tian dnderella 
with her fairy glass slipj)er. On the oldest monuments, writ- 
ing liad advanced from mere j)ictures to a rebus stage (p. 8). 
This rarh/ writing was used mainly by the ])riests, and so the 
strange characters are called hiirofjh/jihs ("priests' writing"). 
They are a "delightful asseml)lage of birds, snakes, men, tools, 
stars, and beasts," used, not for objects merely, but rather 
as sound symbols, each for a syllable. Some of these signs 



LEARNING AND ART 19 

grew into real *' letters " (p. 8), but the Egyptians never took 
the final step, to a true alphabet. Their writing remained to 
the end a curious mixture of hundreds of signs of things and 
ideas and syllables, and of a few single sounds. 

The oldest inscriptions were cut in stone. But very soon The papyru 
the Egyptians invented " paper." They took papyrus reeds, 

ki3"0^n ;f.crr^i°€:; »= o ^t Y--'3'if-/?p-'iir=!!rr*,<<;!:i)uiDT2s:.':s;>;rfMi*/-fL 

Part of Rosetta Stone (p. 20) containing hieroglyphs first deciphered. 

which grew abundantly in the Nile, split the stems down the 
middle, laid the slices, flat side up, in two layers, one crossing 
the other, and pressed them into a firm yellowish sheet, some- 
what as we make our " paper " from wood pulp. On such 
sheets they wrote with a pointed reed in black or red ink. 

Part of Above Inscription (last line) on a large scale. That part within 
the curved line ("cartouch") was known, by Egyptian custom, to be 
the name of a pharaoh, and became the starting point for study. 

The dry air of Egyptian tombs has preserved great numbers 
of buried papyrus rolls to our time. In the rapid writing on 
this " paper," stl*okes were run together, and so the stiff hiero- 
glyphs of the monuments were gradually modified into a running 
script, differing from the older characters somewhat as our script 
differs from print. 

Many Egyptian inscriptions and papyrus rolls had long The Rosett 
been known to European scholars ; but until a century ago no ^*°"® 
one could read them. About 1800 a.d. some French soldiers. 



20 



RHOXZK A(JK MEX IX EGYPT 



A key to 
lost ages 



while di^giiiK trciiclics near the Kosctta iiioutli of the Xile, 
t'oiiml a curious shib of l)lciek rock covered with three inscrip- 
tions, ((tch in if,s' oirn lci)t(l of writing. The top one was in the 

ancient hieroglyphics of 
the pyramids ; then came 
one in the later Egyptian 
script (likewise unknown) ; 
and at the bottom was an 
inscription in Greek. A 
French scholar, (liampol- 
lion, who had been work- 
ing for years, with small 
success, in trying to de- 
cipher the hieroglyphics, 
guessed shrewdly that 
tliese three inscriptions 
told the same story. In 
1822 he proved this true. 
Then, by means of the 

The RosKTi a vStoni:, us now mounted Greek, he found the mean- 
and preserved in the British Museum. . 

Length. 3' 9"; breadth. 2' 41" ; thick- »ng ot the Other charac- 
ncss, 11". The inscription belongs to ters, and so had a key to 
the second century B.r. See p. 19- , , , 

the language and writing 

of old Egypt. The famous " Rosetta Stone " made dumb 
ages speak once more. 




Science lvg>]UiMn science, too, was " the gift of the Xile." After an 

iiiuiidation, it was often needful to surve\ the land, and this 
led to the skill of the (>arl\ Egyi)tians in geometry. And the 
need of fixing in adxance the exact time of the inundation 
directed attention to the true " xcar," and so to (i.sfrotiouiy. 
Great adxance was made in hotli these studies. The 
Egyptians understood the rexolution of the earth and 
planets around the >nn. and fixe thousand xcars ago they had 
mapped tlie sun's (ipixinnt ])atli (the zodiac) into its twelve 
signs. They iiad also nuip})ed the stars in constellations, as 
shown to-da\ in our " star-maps" ; and they had adopted a 



PLATE VI 





ABovt.. — Tkmim.k ok ltAMKsi:s AT Thkhks: liist cuurl. .souili siiU'. 



BkLOW. OlTEU CulKT IN FHONT OF TkMPI.K ()F IsI^ AT PhILAK 

West f'ohiimado. 



LEARNING AND ART 21 

'' calendar " with a year of 365 days, divided into twelve months 
(moons) of 30 days each, with five added feast-days. (Later 
they found that their year was too short by nearly a quarter of a 
day ; but the leap-year arrangement which their scholars then 
invented never came into general use in ancient Egypt.) 

They also divided the day into twelve double hours, and in- 
vented both a water-clock and a shadow-clock (or dial) to 
measure the passage of the hours. 

In arithmetic the Egyptians dealt in numbers to millions, with 
a notation like that used later l)y the Romans. Thus, 3423 was 
represented by the Romans : T-I M M C C c C XX ill 
and by the Eg^Tptians : $X$®@@(gRI' 

iVmazing skill was shown in architecture, sculpture, and 
painting. Aside from the pyramids, the most famous buildings 
were the gigantic temples of the gods. In these we find the 
first use of columns, arranged often in long colonnades. The 
Egyptians understood the principle of the arch, and they used it 
sometimes in their private mansions ; but in the huge temples 
the roofs and ceilings were formed always by laying immense 
flat slabs of rock across from column to column (or from square 
pier to pier). The result is an impression of stupendous power, 
but not of surpassing beauty. 

On the walls and columns, and within the pyramid tombs, 
we find long bands of pictures ("reliefs") cut into the stone.. 
Often these represent historical scenes, the story of which is told 
in detail by inscriptions above or below^ the band of sculpture. 
The Egyptians did not understand "perspective," and so in such 
carving and drawing they could not represent one figure behind 
another, or give the sense of varying distances. All the figures 
appear on one plane, and are drawn on one scale. (Compare 
the reliefs on pp. 12, 17 with the Roman relief on p. 216.) In 
other respects the Egyptian work is exceedingly lifelike. 

In carving complete statues, the ignorance of perspective did 
not injure the effect. The Eg^^ptians, accordingly, excelled 
here, especially in portrait statues, small or life size. They 
were fond, too, of making colossal statues, which, however 



22 BRONZE-AGE MEX IX EGYPT 

unnatural, have a gloomy and overwhelming granrleur in 
keeping witli the melancholy desert that stretches about 
them. 

Religion There was a curious mixture of religions. Each family wor- 

shiped its ancestors. Such (inccs-tor iror.ship is found, indeed, 
among all primiti\e peoples, along with a Ix-lief in evil spirits 
and malicious ghosts. There was also a nu)r.shiiJ of (itiimal'i. 
Cats, dogs, hulls, crocodiles, and many other animals were 
sacred. To injure one of these "gods," even hy accident, was 
to incur the uuinhMous fury of the people. Probably this wor- 
ship wa.s a degraded kind of ancestor worship known as totcntis-m, 
which is found among many peoples. North American Indians 
of a wolf clan or a bear clan — with a fabled wolf or bear for 
an ancestor — must on no account injure the ancestral animal 
or "totem." In Egypt, however, the worship of animals 
became more widely spread, and took on grosser features, than 
has ever been the case elsewhere. Above all this, there was a 
nature worship witli countless deities and demigods representing 
sun, moon, river, wind, storm, trees, and stones. Each village 
and town had its special nature g(Kl to protect it ; anci the gods 
of the great capitals became fiatiotial deities. 
Ideas of With the better classes this nature worship mounted some- 

^°^ times to a lofty and pure worship of one God. "God," say 

some of the inscri])tions, "is a s])irit : no man knowt^th his 
form," and again, — " He is the creator of the heavens and 
the earth and all that is therein." These lofty thoughts never 
spread far among the people ; but a few thinkers in Egypt rose 
to them even earlier than the Hebrew prophets did. A youthful 
king (Ikhnaton) of the fifteenth century n.c, sought earnestly 
to replace all lower worships with this higlier one. He wiis 
overthrown finally by the priesthood and the superstitious 
masses; but we still have a hymn written by him in honor of 
Aten (the Sun-disk), symlx)! of Liglit and Life. 

"Thy appearing is beautiful in tho liori/oii of licavon, 
O living Aten, the beginnin^^ of life ! . . . 
Thou tillest evory land with thy lu'iiuty. 



PLATE VII 




A ToMn Painting showiiiR offorinps to the dead. The Egyptians decorated 
the flat walb of their tombs and temples, and their relief sculptures, in 
brilliant colors — which in the dry air of enclosed tombs have lasted to 
this day, but which fade quickly when exposed to the outer air. This 
picture shows well the chief article of male dress — a linen loin-cloth, 
s*)metimes drawn together into short trousers. Nobles st)metimes added 
a sleeveless mantle clasped over the shoulder. 



RELIGION AND MORALS 



23 



Thy beams encompass all lands which thou hast made. 

Thou bindest them with thy love. . . . 

The birds fly in their marshes — 

Lifting their wings to adore thee. . . . 

The small bird in the egg, sounding within the shell — 

Thou givest it breath within the egg. . . . 

How many are the things which thou hast made ! 

Thou Greatest the land by thy will, thou alone, 

With peoples, herds, and flocks. . . . 

Thou givest to every man his place, thou framest his life." 




Sculptured Funeral Couch, representing the soul crouching by the corpse. 

The idea of a future life was held in two or three forms. Nearly 
all savage peoples believe that after death the body remains the 
home of the soul, or at least that the soul lives on in a pale, 
shadowy existence near the tomb. If the body be jiot pre- 
served, or if it be not given proper burial, then, it is thought, 
the soul becomes a wandering and mischievous ghost. 

The earl}' Egyptians held such a belief, and their practice 
of embalming ^ the body before burial was connected with it. 
They wished to preserve the body as the home for the soul. 
In the early tombs, too, there are always found dishes in which 
had been placed food and drink for the ghost. After these 
6000 years of different faiths, the Egyptian peasant still buries 

1 " Embalming" is a process of preparing a dead body with drugs and 
spices, so as to prevent decay. The corpses of the wealthy, so preserved, 
were also swathed in many layers of linen cloths before being laid away. 
A corpse so preserved and wrapped is called a mummy. 



24 



ANCIENT K(JVPT 



Moral 
standards 



Protected 
from inva- 
sion by 
geography 



food and diiiik with his (h-ad. Siicli customs hist h)iig after the 
ideas on which they were based have faded ; hut llu re must always 
hare hern sonic lire idea in thnu at first. 

Among the l)etter classes there finally grew up a i)elief in a 
truer immortality in a distant Klysium. This haven, however, 
was only for those ghosts who, on arrival, should he declared 
wortlix. The following noble extract comes from the "Repu- 
diation of Sins." This was a statement (hundreds of years older 
tlian the IIcl)rcw Ten Commandments) which the Egyptian 
believed he ought to be able to say truthfully before the "Judges 
of the Dead." It is the y?/-.v^ record of tlie idea that a good life 
ought to win reward hereafter. 

"Hail unto you, ye lords of Truth! hail to thee, great god, lord of 
Truth and Justice ! [O.siris] . . . I have not committed iniquity against 



men ! 1 liave not oppressed the poor ' 



I have not caused the slave 



to be ill-treated of his master ! / have not pulled down the scale of the 
balance! I have not taken away the milk from the mouths of suck- 
lings. . . . Grant that he may come unto you — he that hath not 
lied or borne false witness, . . . he that hath given bread to the hungry 
and drink to him that was athirst, and that hath clothed the naked icith gar- 
ments.'' Some other declaration of this statement run: "I have not 
blasphemed"; "I have not stolen''; "I have not slain any man 
tn'acherously " ; **I have not matle false accusation"; "I have not 
eaten my heart with envy." See also Davis' Readings, I, Xos. 9 
and 10. 

h'or the first thousand years of her history as a kingdom, 
Egypt was almost isolated from other lands, excej)t for trade. 
The Nile valley was so difficult to get into that. wher. a large 
state had once been formed there, it was almost safe from attack. 
To the south were the .\byssinians, a brave and warlike people; 
but they were cut off from Egyi)t by a twelve-day march 
through a desert and by impassable cataracts in the Nile. 
Trade caravans and small bands might traxcl from one country 
to the otlu*r; but armies could do so only with the greatest 
difhcultx . To the west lay the Sahara — an immense inhos- 
pitable tract, peoj)lc<l by small trilx's roaming from oasis to 
oasis. Oti fhe north and idst la\- the Mediterranean and the 
Red Sea. 



PLATE VIII 




■■1 




r-^-T-i 


^^^HHHI 


B 


MgF 


L^^J 


^^^^^^^ 




HM 


^^jl 




ttev-',."^ ^ 


NP^^Bj^^l 


r 1 




& ■ 


if.'^M| 


LJ 




1^^ J 


[jlJH 



Above. — Hathor Osiris Isis 

Osiris was the chief god of Egyptian religion — god of the sky and 
sun. His symbol was the bull. Isis was his sister and wife, goddess 
of the sky and the moon. The cow was sacred to her. Horus (Plate III), 
a leading deity, was her son. Hathor was another sun deity. 

Below. — Weighing the Soul in the scales of truth before the gods of the 
dead. — From an ancient papyrus funeral service. (The figures with ani- 
mal heads are gods and their messengers. The human forms represent 
the dead who are being led to judgment.) 



EXCHANGES INDUSTRY FOR MILITARISM 



25 



Thus with sides and rear protected, Egypt faced Asia across 
the iiarrow Isthmus of Suez. And here, too, the region border- 
ing Egypt was mainly desert. But a Uttle to the north, between 
the mountains and the sea, lay Syria, ^ a narrow strip of habitable 
ground and a nursery of warlike peoples. Here dwelt the Phoeni- 
cians, Philistines, Canaanites, Hebrews, Moabites, and Hittites, 
whom we read of in the Bible. Mountain ranges and rivers 
divided these peoples into 
many small, mutually hos- 
tile states ; and so Syria 
offered a tempting field to 
Egyptian military ambition 
whe7i Egypt had, grown 
powerful enough for outside 
conquests. The Theban 
pharaohs of 2400-2000 
B. c. laid the region waste 
in a series of wars, and 
finally made themselves its 
masters. Then, about 1700 
B.C., Egypt was itself in- 
vaded and conquered by a 
strange race of nomads 
from the neighboring Arabian desert. From the name of their 
rulers we know these invaders as Hyksos, or Shepherds. They 
introduced the horse into Egypt. (This animal never became 
common enough for work purposes, but was used only in 
war.) 

A century later, the Hyksos were expelled by a new line 
of native pharaohs at Thebes. These are known as the monarchs 
of the "New Empire.'' The long struggle with the invading 
Hyksos had fastened militarism disastrously upon the indus- 
trial Egyptians, and the New Empire is known chiefly for its 
conquests in war. 



Egypt 

and 

Syria 




Sculptured Head of Thutmosi.s III 
(1470 B.C.), who in twelve terrible cam- 
paigns carried Egyptian rule from the 
Isthmus to the Tigris- 



1 The term "Syria" is used with a varying meaning. In a narrow sense, 
as in this passage, it means only the coast region. In a broader use, it 
applies to all the country between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates. 



26 



ANCIENT K(;vi»'r 



.1/ /V.v c.vfrctnr north, fhr frrtilr Si/ri(ni strip hrnds south again 
in (I sharp crescent around the Arabian desert down the course 
of the Eiiphrates and Tigris. On these rivers, so much like their 
own Nile, the Egyptian eoiKjuerors found a civilization not 
nnich inferior to their own, and almost as old. These first two 
homes of eirilizatiou, the valleys of the Nile and of the Ku])hrates, 




were only some SOU miles ai)art in a strai^dit lin(>; l)Ut alon^^ the 
two legs of the triangle — the only practicable route — the 
distance was much greater. That whole district was soon covered 
by a network of roads. These were garrisoned here and there 
by Egyptian fortresses; and along them, for centuries, there 
passed hurr\ ing streams of oflicials, couriers, and merchants. 



EXCHANGES INDUSTRY FOR MILITARISM 27 

But "he who takes the sword shall perish by the sword." 
The population of Egypt was drained of its manhood by long 
wars, and impoverished by heavy ivar taxation. Finally the pha- 
raohs could no longer defend their distant frontiers, and with- 
drew within the old borders of Egypt. In particular, they found 
it impossible to war longer with the Hittites, who, armed with 
iron weapons, descended from the slopes of the Taurus moun- 
tains and overthrew Egyptian power in Syria. Then, in 672, 
Egypt became subject to Assyria (p. 31). 

Twenty years later, Psammetichus restored Egyptian inde- A bnet revi 
pendence, and became the first of the final line of native pharaohs. g q 
He had been a military adventurer, and he won his throne 
largely through the aid of mercenary Greek troops. During 
all her earlier greatness, however much her traders visited foreign 
lands, Egypt had kept herself jealously closed against strangers. 
But Psammetichus threiv open the door to foreigners, especially 
to the Greeks, who were just coming into notice. Greek 
travelers visited Egypt ; large numbers of Greek soldiers served 
in the army ; and a Greek colony at Naucratis was given special 
privileges. Indeed, Sais, the new capital of Psammetichus 
and his son, thronged with Greek adventurers. Egypt "had 
lit the torch of civilization" ages before : now she passed it on 
to the Western world through this vigorous new race. 

Neco, son of Psammetichus, is remembered for his fine attempt Voyage 
to reopen the ancient canal from the Nile to the Red Sea (p. 18). ^°|J.^^ 
This failed ; but Neco did find another sea route from the Red 
to the Mediterranean. One of his ships sailed around Africa, 
down the east coast, returning three years later through the 
Mediterranean. Herodotus (p. 15), who tells us the story, adds : 
"On their return the sailors reported (others may believe them 
but I will not) that in sailing from east to west around Africa 
they had the sun on their right hand." This report, so incred- 
ible to Herodotus, is good proof to us that the story of the 
sailors was true. (If the student does not see why, let him 
trace the route on a globe.) 

This voyage closes Egyptian history. In 525 B.C. the land 
became subject to Persia (p. 42), and native rule has never been 



28 ANCIENT ECJYPT 

restored. The poet Slielley ])ietures tlie decay of Egyptian 
iniglit : 

"Two vast and trunkless legs of stone 

Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand. 
Half-sunk, a shattered visage lies. 

And on the pedestal, these words apju'ar: 
* My name is Ozymandias, king of kings 
Look on my works, Ye Mighty, and despair!' 
Nothing beside remains. Round the decay 

Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare. 
The lone and level sands stretch far awav." 



Exercises. — 1. Make and compare lists of the things we owe to 
Egypt. 2. What can you learn from these extracts upon Egypt in 
Davis' Readings, which have not been referred to in this chapter? (If 
the class have enough of those valuable little books in their hands, this 
topic may make all or part of a day's lesson.) 3. Do you regard the 
Great Pyramid or the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea or the con- 
quest of Syria as the truest proof of Egyptian greatness? 4. Can 
you see any connection between the cheap food of the Nile valley and 
its place as an early home of civilization? Could you suggest a more 
just division of the leisure that resulted from that cheap food? 



PLATE X 





' Colossi OF Memnon" NEAR Thebes: statues of Amenophis III (1400 b.c), 
whom the Romans called Memnon. In the lower view the two " Colossi 
are in the background, while the structure in the foreground is part of a 
temple of Rameses III (Plate VI) with colossal statues of that pharaoh. 
The "Memnon" statues (69 feet high with the missing crowns) were 
originally the portals of a temple of which few vestiges remain. 



CHAPTER III 
THE MEN OF THE EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS 

Rising on opposite slopes of snow-capped Armenian moun- The land of 
tains, the Euphrates and Tigris rivers approach each other in ma- ^^^^^ 
jestic sweeps until they form a common valley ; then they flow 
in parallel channels for most of their course, uniting just before 
they reach the Persian Gulf. 

Their valley is a rich oasis of luxuriant vegetation lying between The three 
the sands of Arabia and the rugged plateaus of Central Asia, ^^^^^o^s 




A Babylonian Boundary Stone of about 2000 e.g., lying upon its 
left side. — Such stones were placed at each corner of a grant of land. 
The inscription records the title, and the gods are invoked to witness the 
grant or sale and to punish transgressors upon the owner's rights. 



It has three parts. (1) Like the delta of the Nile, the lower 
part had been built up out of alluvial soil carried out, in the 
course of ages, into the sea. This district is known as Baby- 
lonia, or Chaldea. Its fertility, in ancient times, was kept up by 
the annual overfloiv of the Euphrates, regulated, like the 
Nile's, by dikes, reservoirs, and canals. To the north, the rich 
Chaldean plain rises into a broad table-land. (2) The fertile 
half of this, on the Tigris side, is ancient Assyria. (3) The west- 
ern part of the upper valley (Mesopotamia) is more rugged, and 

29 



30 



(MIALDKAXS A\I) ASSYRIANS 



City-states 
give way to 
an empire 



is important iiiaiiilx Ix'caiisc it makes part of the ^rcat curved 
road, around the Arai)ian desert, from ("haldea to K^ypt (p. 2()). 
By 4()()() H.( . the (Mialdeans liad eo])per tools and a hiero- 
glyphic \vriti^^^ Suceessixc waxes of eoiuiiierin^^ nomads from 

the Arabian desert finally 
made tlieir lanf^uage Semitic, 
thon^di the people never 
really became Semites in 
blood. In the less ci\ ilized 
Ti<j;ris district, however, the 
inhabitants did become 
mainly Semitic.^ The men of 
the South — Chaldeans, or 
Babylonians — were quick- 
witted, industrious, gentle. 
The men of tlie north — the 
hook-nosed, larger-framed, 
fiercer Assyrians — delighted 
in blood and gore, and had 
The Oldest Arch Known (about 4000 ^^\y ^^^^,\^ r^^^^ ^j^^\ learning 
B.C.)- This vaulted drain wa.s di.s- * 

covered a few years a^o fifteen feet as they COUld borrow trom 
below what had long been .supposed ^j^^ir neighbors. 
to be the earliest remains of Bal).\- 
lonian civilization. It seems to have 

l)een part of a highly complex drain- j^^^^ ,^^ ^^ ^^^^^, Egvpt SO 
age system in a crypt of an ancient " . f^. F ' 

temple. The arch is two feet high, in this d(Mible valley, many 
The clay pipes whose forms can be ^j^j^^ ^^,,^ ,^ ^ ^^..^^^ ^^,j^j^ 

.seen dunly on the bottom, are eight '^ 

inches in diameter, and lie in two-foot one another from an early 

j"i"<^^- date. Each such city, with 

its surroundinu liandets and farms, was a little "city-state." 
First Arrad and then T/- (botli of which we read of in the Bible) 
won control over all Chaldea. Later, Hn})j/J()n in Chaldea and 
Nineveh in Assyria became tlie capitals of mighty empires.- 

' The languages of the Arabs, .Jews, A.ssyrians, and of some other neigh- 
boring peoples, such as the ancient Phoenicians (p- 40), are closely related. 
The whole group of such languages is called Semitic, and the pcviples who 
speak them are called Semites (descendants of Sht m). 

- .Vn empire is properly a state containing many sul)-states. Egypt was 
called !i kiriuthnn while it was confined to the Nile valley, but an cinjnrc when 
its sw.iy extended over Ethioi)ia and Syria (p. 25). 




fulness 



ASSYRIAN " FRIGHTFULNESS " IN WAR 31 

About 2150 B.C., a new Semitic conqueror, Hammurapi, Hammurapi 
established himself at Babylon, and soon extended his rule *"^ *^® . 
over the whole valley and westward even to the Mediterranean. Empire 
This was the First Babylonian Empire. For hundreds of years 
Chaldean fashions were copied, Chaldean manufactures were 
used, and Chaldean "books" were read, all over Syria; and, 
ever since, the name Babylon has remained a symbol for mag- 
nificence and power. After five or six centuries, however, Egypt 
for a time seized most of this Babylonian empire (p. 26). 

In 745 B.C., Nineveh, long subject to Babylon, became her- The 
self the seat of an Assyrian Empire, larger and mightier than E^^"e and 
any that had gone before it. The king Sargon carried away the " fright- 
Ten Tribes of Israel into captivity (722 B.C.) ; Sargon's son, 
Sennacherib, subdued Judah;^ and Sennacherib's son con- 
quered Egypt (p. 27). 

Every Assyrian energy went to make the army a perfect 
fighting machine. The soldiers were armed with iron weapons 
(adopted from the Hittites (p. 27) ), and were equipped with 
battering rams and great hurling engines, to beat down the earth 
walls of unsubmissive cities. The transportation and disper- 
sion of a conquered nation, with unimaginable sufferings (as 
in the case of the "Lost Tribes" of Israel), was a common 
practice, to guard against rebellion. *'Frightfulness" was the 
deliberate policy of the Assyrians, to intimidate their enemies ; 
and the rulers exulted fiendishly in details of cruelty. Said 
parts of two royal inscriptions : 

" They did not embrace my feet. ... I captured the city. . . . The 
spoil I carried away. ... I cut off the hands and feet of some [of the 
conquered] ; I cut off the noses, ears, and fingers of others. ... I 
built a -pyramid of the living and a pyramid of heads. The city I over- 

1 2 Kings, xviii. For the Assyrian story, see Davis' Readings, I, No. 12. 
Sennacherib, however, is best remembered from the Jewish account of the 
destruction of his army, in an earlier expedition, by a sudden plague — 
"smitten by the angel of the Lord." This is the incident referred to in 
Byron's lines : 

"The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold . . . 
Like leaves of the forest when Autumn has blown. 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown." 



32 



rUALDKAXS AND ASSYRIAXS 



Fall of 
Assyria 



1 

1 


i 

PI 


; 



OUKLISK OF ShaLMANKSKU II OF 

AssYUiA (S5S B.C.). — From 
.lastrow's Babylonia and As- 
syria. Thi.s is :i huKC hhu-k 
stone, four-fjiced. The five 
bands of sculpture n\>(m two 
fju'es in this cut run around 
the four faces, a.s do the in- 
.scriptions. Each hand illus- 
trates the conciuest by Shal- 
maneser of a different nation, 
and the inscriptions contain 
the cruel passages recorded 
on this \K\Kf- One inscri|)tion 
records the trihut*' exacted 
from Jehu, king of .lud.ili. 



throw, (hig up, .111(1 huriK'd. The nobles, 
as many as had revolted, / jhnjtd. With 
their skins 1 covered the pyramid [of 
citi/ens]. . . . Some of them / buried 
(litre in (he tnid,st of the pyrnmid ; others 
/ impaled on stokes. 

In another inscription Sennacherib 
declares that he once razed Babylon 
it.self for rebellion : "Temple and tower 
1 tore down. . . . 1 duji; ditches through 
the city, and /r/ir/ waste its site. Greater 
than the deluge wius its annihilation." 

Tlic wide rule of Assyria was 
short-lived. Her strength was wasted 
by constant wars abroad, and her 
industries decayed at home. .\ I (lim- 
ing hatred, too, against her cruelties 
and her crushing taxation rankled in 
the hearts of the oppressed peoples. 
•Vfter twenty years of subjection, 
Kgypt broke away. Twenty years 
more, and Babylon followed. Hordes 
of "Scythians " (probably Tartar 
nomads) from the north devastated 
the empire. And in 606 the Medes 
and Babylonians captured Nineveh 
itself; and the proud "city of 
l)lood," wliicli had razed so many 
other cities, was given to sack and 
pillage. The ])assionate exultation 
of all neighboring jx'oples was spoken 
in the stern words of the Hebrew 
j)rophet : " All that hear the news of 
thy fate shall claj) their hands over 
thee — for whom hath not tliy 
wickedness afliicttMJ eontiniially ? " ^ 
Two hundred years later the Greek 

' Xahuin iii. 1 li). See also Isaiah xiii, 
Hi L'L', and .Jeremiah 1 and li. 



THE FALL OF NINEVEH 



33 



adventurer Xenophon, standing on the crumbling ruins of 
Nineveh, could not even learn their name. 

A Seco7id Babylonian Empire began with the successful Second 
rebellion against Assyria, in 625 b.c, but it lasted less than Babylonian 
a century. The glory of this period belongs chiefly to the reign 
of Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.). He carried away the Jews 
into the "Babylonian Captivity" — in unhappy imitation of 




Assyrian policy ; but he also rebuilt Babylon on a magnificent 
scale, and renewed the ancient engineering works (Davis' 
Readings). Soon after this reign, Babylon fell before the rising 
power of Persia (p. 42). 

During the past thousand years, under Turkish rule, the 
last vestiges of the ancient engineering works of Chaldea have 
gone to ruin. The m^Tiads of canals are choked with sand, 
and, in this early home of civilization, the uncontrolled over- 



34 



CHALDEANS AND ASSYRIANS 



flow of the river turns the eastern districts into a dreary marsh, 
while on the west the desert has drifted in, to cover the most 
fertile soil in the world, — and the sites of scores of mighty 
cities are only shapeless mounds, where sometimes nomad 
Arahs cani]) for a ni<;ht. Recently (since 1910), it is true 




Babylonian' Lion. Sii;ii;:lii ikhiIi jukI >nu\\\ ihroutzh I'-alixKni ran a 
famous " Procession Street," or " Sacred ^^'ay," from the temple of 
Marduk, the city's guardian god, to the city gate. In Nebuchadnez- 
zar's time this street was paved witli huge smof)th slabs of stone. On 
either side of this pavement ran a high brick wall, ornamented along its 
entire length with a frieze of lions in low relief, lirilliantly enameled in 
white and yellow upon a dark blue ground and crowned with white rosettes. 
This procession of lions (s\-mbol of the god) led to colossal sculptures 
of guardian biills at the city gateway. 



(under German contrf)l, and now under Mn^lish). nuiny thou- 
sand acres ha\(' l)een rcclninicd for fields of cotton and ^n'ain. 

The king The king, both in Chaldea and Assyria, was surrounded with 

everything that could awe and charm the nuisses. Extraordi- 
nary magnificence and splendor reni()\ed him from the common 
people. He gave audience, seated on a golden throne covered 
with a purple canop\' which was supported hy pillars glittering 
with precious stones. All who came into his presence prostrated 



SOCIETY AND LIFE 



35 



themselves in the dust until bidden to rise. His rule was 
absolute. 

The peasants tilled the rich land in misery. As in Egypt Rich and 
they paid for their holdings with half of the produce. In a P°°^ 
poor year, this left them in 
debt for seed and living. The 
creditor could charge exorbi- 
tant interest — usually 20 per 
cent a year ; and if it were not 
paid, he could levy not only 
upon the debtor's small goods, 
but also upon wife or child, or 
upon the farmer himself, for 
slavery — though only for three 
years. 

The wealthy class included 
land-owners, officials, profes- 
sional men, money lenders, 
and merchants. The merchant 
in particular ivas a prominent 
figure. The position of Chal- 
dea, at the head of the Persian 
Gulf, made its cities the nat- 
ural mart of exchange between 
India and Syria. The exten- 
sive wars of Assyria, cruel as 
they were, were not merely for 
love of conquest : they were 
largely commercial in purpose, 
— to win " a place in the sun," 
like most modern wars, — to 
secure the trade of Syria and 




Commerce 
and wars of 
greed 



Laws of Hammueapi (see text). — 
At the top of the stone shaft, on 
one face, is a sculptured relief rep- 
resenting the king (standing) receiv- 
ing the Law from the hand of the 
Sun God. 



Phoenicia, and to ruin trade centers, like Damascus, Jerusalem, 
and Tyre, that were competing with Nineveh. 

In 1902 A.D., a French explorer found a collection of 280 Laws of 
Babylonian laws inscribed, in some 2600 lines, upon an eight- 
foot shaft of stone. This "code" asserts that it was enacted 



Hammurapi 



36 ASSVKIA AXD BABYLOXIA 

by llaininuiai)! (p. 'M). It is the oldest huowu code of laws 
in the world ; and it shows tliai the men for whom it was made 
were ah'eady far achaneed in ei\ihzation. It tries to ^uard 
against l)ril)ery of judge's and witnesses, against careless medical 
practice, against ignorant or dishonest building contractors, as 
well as against the oppression of widows and ()ri)hans. Some 
prox isions remind us of the later Jewish law of an eye for an 
eye and a tooth for a tooth — though injuries to a poor man 
could be atoned for in money : 

"If a man has caused a man of rank to lose an oyo, one of his own 
eyes must be struck out. if he has shattered the limb of a man of rank, 
let his own limb be broken. [But] If he has caused a poor man to lose 
an eye, or has shattered a limb, let him pay one maneh of silver" [about 
$32 in our values]. 

This code, and other discoveries, show that rifiht.s of propcriy 
were carefully guarded. Deeds, wills, marriage settlements, 
legal contracts of all kinds, survive by tens of thousands. 
Cuneiform The early inhabitants of Chaldea had a system of hieroglyph- 

writing j^g j^^j^ unlike the Egyj)tian. At first they wrote, or painted, 

these on the papyrus, which grew in the Kuj)hrates as well as in 
the Nile. Later, they came to press the characters with a sharp 
metal instrument into c-lay tablets (which were then baked 
to preserve them). This change of nuiterial led to a change 
in the written characters. The pictures shriveled and flat- 
tened into Vvcdge-shaped symbols, and so scholars call this 
writing rumifoDii, from the Latin cmicu.s, wedge. The sig- 
And writing natures to legal documents show a great variety of hand- 
schools writings; and recently a Babylonian .school Ikhi.si' has 
been excavated, wliere boys were taught to write. The floor 
was strewn with many ".slates" (soft cla\ tablets when the 
Babylonian boys used them), covered with writing exercises, 
evidently from set copies of various degrees of difliculty. When 
such a "slate" was full, the Babylonian boy cleaned it b\ scraj)- 
ing it smooth with a straight-edged scraper. 
Books Kach of the numerous cities that studded the valley of the 
fibraries ^^^''^ rivers had its library, sometimes several of them. A 
librarv was a collection of cla\- tablets or bricks cox-ered with 



PLATE XI 





Above. — ^ Fragment of a Babylonian " Deluge Tablet" — with a story 
of a deluge somewhat like that in Genesis. 

Below. — A Babylonian Contract Tablet in Duplicate. — The outer 
tablet is broken to show part of the inner original, which could always be 
consulted if the outside was thought to have been tampered with. 



PLATE XII 




Ax AssYKiAN "B(n;K" — an eijrht-sidcHl ryliiuler ..f iKiki-.l .-lay inscribed 
with the story of eight campaigns of Sennacherib. Tlie brick (now in 
the British Niuscum) is about three times as large as its representation 
here. 



LEARNING AND LIBRARIES 37 

minute cuneiform writing — six lines, perhaps, to an inch. 
In Babylon the ruins of one library contained over thirty thou- 
sand tablets, of about the date 2700 B.C., all neatly arranged 
in order. A tablet, with its condensed wTiting, corresponds 
fairly well to a chapter in one of our books. Each tablet had 
its library number stamped upon it, and the collections were 
carefully catalogued. The kings prided themselves on keeping 
libraries open to the public ; and a large part of the inhal)itants 
(including many women) could read and write. 

The literary class studied the "dead" language of the pre- 
Semitic period, as we study Latin, and the merchants were 
obliged to know the languages spoken in Syria in that day. 
The libraries contained dictionaries and grammars of these lan- 
guages, and also many translations of foreign books, in columns 
parallel wdth the originals. Scribes were constantl}- employed in 
copying and editing ancient texts, and they seem to have been 
very careful in their work. When they could not make out a 
word in an ancient copy, they tell us so, and leave the space 
blank. 

Science was somewhat hindered by belief in charms and magic. Chaldean 
Some of our boyish forms of "counting out" such as "eeny, science 
meeny, miny, moe," are playful survivals of solemn forms of 
divination used by Chaldean magicians. Still, in geometry 
the Chaldeans made as much progress as the Egyptians ; and 
in arithmetic more. Their notation combined the decimal 
and duodecimal systems. Sixty was a favorite unit (used as 
we use the hundred) because it is divisible by both ten and 
twelve. (That notation survives on the faces of most of 
our clocks and on every school globe, and the Chaldean " dozen'' 
is still one of our units.) 

As in Egypt, too, the clear skies and level plains invited an Astrology 
early study of the heavenly bodies. Every great city had its 
lofty observatory and its royal astronomer ; and in Babylon, 
in 331 B.C., Alexander the Great found the record of an unbroken 
series of observations running back 1900 years before that time. 
Toward the close of their civilization the Chaldeans learned 
to foretell eclipses. In great measure, however, they studied 



38 



ASSY in A AXD BABYLONIA 



Arts and 
industry 



Our debt to 
Babylon 



iistroiioiuy as a means ol" lorctcllinj;' the future — hecausc tlie 
stars were tlioii^^lit to iiiHiieiiee hiiman lives. This })reten(le(l 
science we call (isiroUxjji, to distiii^niisli it from real astronomy. 
It was ])ractice(l in (^aiMiest in iMn-ojx- as late as Queen Eliza- 
beth's time, luul, even after so many hundred years, a European 
astrologer was always called "a Chaldean." 

These men of tlie lMi|)hrates made j)raetieal use of their 
science. They inxcnted ivhuliil caits, and, xcry early, they 

devised effective defen- 
si\'e armoi" — helmets of 
leather end)()ssed with 
co])])er ])lates. They 
wrote l)ooks on (ujri- 
culiuri\ which ])assed on 
tlieir skill in that field 
to the (ireeks. They 
understood the /rrrrand 
pill 1(1/, and used the 
(irrh in \aulted drains 
and a(iueducts. They 
invented an excellent 
system of nica.surcs, 
and arm ; and these 
come down to us 




Hauvli^xiax ( 'YLiXDKit Skai.s. i',\cr.\- \\c\[- 
to-do porsoii hnfl lii.s seal, with which to sign 
letters and legal papers. Sometimes they 
were tiiiely etijiraved jasper or chaledoiiy. 



based on the length of finger, hand, 
measures, along with their ivciiihis, have 
through the Greeks. Our poinid is merely the Babylonian 
mina renamed. The symbols in our 'W pothccdn'c.s' T<il>h/' still 
used in every physician's prescription, are Babylonian, as are 
the curious ".v/V///.v of the zitdiac'' in our almanacs. As we get 
from the Egyptians our yvAV and months, so from the Chaldeans 
we get the //vr/,-, with its "seventh da\- of rest for the soul." 

Babxlonian nutal-workers and engraxcrs had surpassing 
skill in cuti'nuj (jcms, mitincltnd, and inhii/nui. Assyrian 
looms, too, produced the finest of nnislins and of fieecy 
woolens, to which the diiir gaxc the most brilliant colors. The 
rich wore long rol>es of those cloths, decorated with em- 
broideries. Tapestries and carpets, also, wonderfully colored, 
were woxcn, for walls ami iloors an-.l beds. 



ART AND RELIGION 



39 



The Euphrates valley had no stone and little wood. Brick- 
making, therefore, was, next to agriculture, the most important 
industry. Ordinary houses were built of cheap sun-dried 
bricks. The same material was used for all but the outer 
courses of the walls of the palaces and temples ; but for these 
outside faces, a kiln-baked brick was used, much like our own. 
With only these imperfect materials, the Babylonians con- 
structed marvelous tower-temples and elevated gardens, in imi- 
tation of mountain scenery. The "Hanging Gardens," built 



Architec- 
ture and 
sculpture 




Impressions from a King's Cylinder Seal. The figure in the air repre- 
sents the god who protects the king in his perils. 



by Nebuchadnezzar to please his wife (from the Median moun- 
tains), rose, one terrace upon another, to a height of one hun- 
dred and fifty feet, and were counted by the Greeks among the 
" seven wonders of the world." But this extensive use of sun- 
dried brick explains the complete decay of Chaldean cities, — 
which, in the course of ages, sank into shapeless mounds hardly 
distinguishable from the surrounding plain. 

Assyria abounded in excellent stone. Still for centuries her 
builders slavishly used brick, like the people from whom they 
borrowed their art. Finally, however, they came to make use 
of the better material about them for sculpture and for the 
facings of their public buildings. In architecture and sculp- 
ture, though in no other art, Assyria, land of stone, excelled 



40 ASSYRIA AND BABVLOXIA 

Babylonia, land of l)ri(k. In tiic royal palaces, cspt'cially, tlic 
almost unlimited j)o\ver of the monarehs and their Oriental 
passion for splendor and color j^roduced a sumj)tuous mag- 
nificence. 
Religion Bahylonians and Assyrians worshiped ancestors. Mingled 

with this religion was a nature worship, with mnnerous gods 
and demigods. .Vncestor worship is usually aeeomj)anied hy a 
i)elief in witchcraft and in unfriendly ghosts and demons. In 
Chaldea these sujXM'stitions appeared in exaggerated form. The 
j)ictures in early Christian times representing the dexil with 
horns, hoofs, and tail, came from the Bahylonians, through the 
Jewish Talmud (a Hebrew hook of learning and legends). 

Nature worship, in its lower stages, is often accompanied l)y 
debasing rites, in which drunkenness and sensuality appear as 
acts of worshi]). The stern reproaches of the He])rew prophets 
ha\(' made Babylon notorious for such features in her religion; 
but tile following hymn composed in Ur, before the time of 
Abraham, shows noble religious feeling. 

"Father, long suffering and full of forgiveness, whose hand upholds the 

life of all mankind ! . . . 
First-born, omnipotent, whose heart is immensity, and there is none 

who may fathom it ! . . . 
In heaven, who is supreme? Thou alone, thou art sui)reme ! 
On earth, who is supreme? Thou alone, thou art supreme! 
As for thee, thy will is made known in heaven, and tiie angels bow their 

faces. 
Afi for thee, thy will is made known uj)()n earlli, and the spirits below 

kiss the ground." 



PLATE XIII 





Reliefs from Assyrian Palaces 



CHAPTER IV 
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 

Now the map grows. Shortly before the overthrow of Babylon, Lydia and 
two new centers of power had appeared, one on either side of the 
Syrian crescent. These were Persia and Lydia. Lydia was a 
kingdom in western Asia Minor. Somewhat before 550 B.C. 
its sovereign, Croesus, united all Asia Minor west of the Halys 
River under his sway (including many Greek cities on the 
eastern Mediterranean coast). This made the Lydian Empire 
for a time one of the great world-powers (map opposite). 

The region abounded in gold and silver ; and " rich as Croe- 
sus" became a byword. Lydia's gift to the world was the 
invention of coinage. As early as 650 B.C., a Lydian king 
stamped upon pieces of silver a statement of their weight and 
purity, with his name and picture as guarantee of the state- 
ment. This ** money" of Lydia could be received anywhere at 
once at a fixed rate — which made commerce vastly easier. 
Ever since, the coinage of money has been one of the important 
duties of governments. The older " barter, " however, remained 
the common method of exchange, except in the most progressive 
markets, for centuries more. 

On the farther side of the Euphrates and Tigris lay the lofty A new field 
and somewhat arid Plateau of Iran. This was the home of the 
Medes and Persians. These peoples appeared first about 850 
B.C., as fierce barbarians, whom Assyria found it needful to 
subdue repeatedly. Gradually they adopted the civilization 
of their neighbors ; and, in 606, as we have seen, the Medes 
conquered Assyria. 

Then the civilized world was divided, for three generations,^ 

* A generation, as a measure of time, means the average interval that 
separates a father from his son. This corresponds in length, also, in a 
rough way, to the active years of adult life, — the period between early 
manhood and old age. It is reckoned at twenty-five Or thirty years. 

41 



42 



TlIK PKRSrANS 



A rest from 
war 



Cyrus 
makes the 
Persian 
Empire 



Extent and 
population 



l)('t\v(HMi tour «;r('at powers, — Babylon, Kgypt, Lydia, and 
Media. These kingdoms were friendly allies, and the ei\ iliz( d 
world had a rare rest from internal war. 

But in .loS H.( ., (\i/rits, a tributary prince of the Persian 
tribes, threw ott' the yoke of the Medes and set up an inde- 
pendent Persian monarchy — ivhich qiiickli/ hrcainc the most 
powerful empire the world Juui kiiowti. Cyrus conquered 
Media and her allies, Lydia and Babylon; and a few years 
later his son subdued Egypt. The new empire included 
all the former ones, together with the new districts of 
Iran and Asia Minor. 

The next three Persian kings (after Cyrus and his son) 
added to their dominions modern Afghanistan and northwestern 
India on the east, with vast regions to the northeast beyond the 
Caspian Sea; and on the west, the European coast from 
the Black Sea to the Greek peninsula and the islands of the 
Aegean. This huge realm contained possibly seventy-five 
million people, and its eastern and western frontiers were farther 
apart than Washington and San Francisco. Its only civilized 
neighbors were India ^ and Greece. Elsewhere, indeed, it was 
l)ounded bv seas and deserts. 



Persia and 

the 

Scythians 



Persian art and literature were whollij borrowed, mainly from 
Babylonia. Besides the expansion of tlie map, already noted, 
Persia's services to the world were three : the repulse of Scythian 
savages; n Jtetter organization of govern ment : and the lofty char- 
acter of her religion. 

1. About 680 B.C., shortly before the downfall of Nineveh, 
the steppes of the North had poured hordes of savages into 
western Asia (p. 32). By the Greeks these nomads were called 
Scythians, and their inroads were like those of the Huns, Turks, 
and Tartars, in later history. They ])lun(lered as far as Egyi)t ; 
and the\ were a real danger to all the culture the world had 
been building up so j)aiiifully for four thousand years. The 

' C^ivilizations grew up at a very early dat^ in the groat river valleys of 
India and China ; but these civilizations have not much affect^'d our "West- 
ern" rivilization until very rcrently. Therefore they are not taken into ac- 
count in this volume. 



DARIUS THE ORGANIZER 



43 



early Persian kings, by repeated expeditions into the Scythian 
country, saved civilization from these ruthless ravagers. 

2. The first " empires " were held together very loosely. The 
tributary kingdoms had to pay tribute and to assist in war, 
and from time to time their kings were expected to attend the 
court of their master. Otherwise, the subject states were sepa- 
rate units. They kept their old kings and their own language, 
laws, and customs. Two of them sometimes made war upon 
each other, without interference from the head king. A foreign 
invasion or the unexpected 
death of a sovereign might 
shatter the loose union ; 
and then would follow 
years of bloody war, until 
some king built up the 
empire once more. Peace 
and security could not 
exist. 

The Assyria'n rulers had 
begun to reform this plan 
of government. They left 
the subject peoples their 
own laws and customs, as 
before ; but they broke up Persian Gold Armlet, 5 inches in height. 
« ^, 1 r 1 . 1 Found on the banks of the Oxus in 1877. 

some oi the old kmgdoms 

into satrapies, or provinces, ruled by appointed officers. (This 
was Assyria's sole contribution to progress.) The system, how- 
ever, was still unsatisfactory. In theory the satraps were wholly 
dependent upon the will of the imperial king ; but in practice 
they were very nearly kings themselves, and they were under 
constant temptation to try to become independent rulers, by 
rebellion. 

The Persians adopted and extended the system of satraps; 
and Darius ''the Organizer,'' the fourth Persian king (521-^85 
B.C.), introduced three new checks upon rebellion. (1) In each 
of the twenty provinces, power was divided between the satrap 
himself and the commander of the standing army. (2) In 



A new im- 
perial organ- 
ization 




41 



TIIK PERSIANS 



Post 
roads 



The Persian 
religion 



Zoroaster 



each proxincv was placed a royal secretary (the "Kind's Ear") 
to coniiniinieate constantly with the Great King. And (3), 
most important of all, ji special royal commission (the "King's 
Eye"), backed witli military forces, appeared at intervals in 
each satrapy to inquire into the government, and, if necessary, 
to arrest the satrap. 

This icds fhr most .saf/'sfdcforj/ <)r(/anlz(iti()U ever inrc fifed In/ 
an Oritfitdl niipirr, (uiricnt or modern. To the vast Persian 
world it brought a long period of freedom from the waste and 
horror of internal war. ,, 

Each of the subject provinces kept its own language and 
customs ; but Darius did something also to create a ffj)7rit of 
union in the Empire. He reopened the ancient Egyptian canal 
from the Nile to the Red Sea, ^ to encourage trade ;^ and, to 
draw the distant parts of the Empire together, he built a mag- 
nificent system of post roads, with mil(\stones and excellent inns, 
with ferries and bridges, and with relays of swift horses for the 
royal couriers. The chief road, from Susa to Sardis (map 
after p. 42), fifteen hundred miles long, "pierced the strata 
of many tribes and dixerse cultures, and helped set thi irorld 
(i-)ni.vin(i. " 

3. While they were still l)arl)arous tribes, the Persians liad 
learned to worshij) tlic forces of nature, — especially sun, 
moon, stars, and fire. This worship was in the hands of priests, 
called Magi, who were belie\ed to possess " mafjir " powers 
over nature and other men. But the Pi rsiaiis of tlie historic 
age had risen to a nobler worship. This is set forth in the Zend- 
Avesta (the Persian Bible), and it had been established about 
1(K)0 B.C. by Zoroaster. According to this great teacher, the 
world is a stage for unceasing conflict between the powers of 
Light and Darkness, or Good and Evil. It is man's duty to 
assist the good power by resisting evil impulses in his own heart 
and by fighting injustice among men. It is also his jilace to 



' .\ sorii's of nioiiuriicnts set u|> l»y 1 ):iriiis to coTiimeniorate thi.s ^reat 
enKiiiocriiin work have rtMontly l)ot'ii dim out of tlio sands which, after a few 
generation.s. had been aUowed again to l)nry the canal. 

- It wa.s then that trade with the Far East first hrouglit •»ur domestic 
"chicken" into Western .\sia. 



RELIGION AND MORALS 45 

kill harmful beasts, to care tenderly for other animals, and 
to make the earth fruitful. The following passage from the 
Zend-Avesta shows the Persian idea of a future life : 

At the head of the Chinvat Bridge, betwixt this world and the next, 
when the soul goes over it, there comes a fair, white-armed and beauti- 
ful figure, like a maid in her fifteenth year, as fair as the fairest things 
in the world. And the soul of the true believer speaks to her, "What 
maid art thou, — all surpassing in thy beauty? " And she makes an- 
swer, "O youth of good thought, good words, good deeds, and of good 
religion: — / am thine own conscience.'" Then pass the souls of the 
righteous to the golden seat of Ahura-Mazda, of the Archangels, to 
. . . "The Abode of Song." 

Another passage tells how the souls of the wicked are met by a foul 
hag and are plunged into a hideous pit, to suffer endless torment. 

The cardinal virtue was truthfulness. Darius' instructions to 
his successor began : " Keep thyself utterly from lies. The man 
who is a liar, him destroy utterly. If thou do thus, my country 
will remain whole." A century later, the Greek Herodotus 
admired the manly sports of the Persians and the simple train- 
ing of their boys, — " to ride, to shoot with the bow, and to 
speak the truth." 

Exercise. — Would you have expected the Persians to adopt the 
Egyptian hieroglyphs or the cuneiform writing? Why? In what 
ways was the organization of the Persian Empire an improvement 
upon that of the Assyrian? In what way did Assyrian organization 
improve upon Egyptian? 

For Further Reading. — There is an admirable twenty-page treat- 
ment of the Persian Empire in Benjamin Ide Wheeler's Alexander the 
Great (pp. 187-207), — a book which for other reasons deserves a place 
in every school library. Davis' Readings, I, Nos. 25-31, contain much 
interesting material upon Persian reUgion and morals. 



CHAPTKK V 

THE MIDDLE STATES 

From tlic Persian Empire the story of ei\ ilizat ion passes 
back to Europe; but first we must stop to note l)riefl\ the 
work of two small peoples of Syria, the middle land between the 
Nile and the Euphrates. Without ever growing into powerful 
empires, the Phorniv'unhs and the Hebrews were mighty factors 
in the progress of the world. 

1. THE PHOENICIANS 

Sailors and The Phoenicians dwelt on a little strip of broken coast shut 
tra ers ^^^ from the interior by the Lebanon Mountains (map, p. 50). 

Their many harbors invited them seaward, and the "cedar of 
Lebanon" offered the best of ship timber. When history first 
reveals the INIediterranean, it is dotted with their a^dventurous 
sails. At first, half traders, half pirates, their crews crept from 
island to island, to barter with the natives or to sweep them off 
for slaves, as chance might best suggest. Then, more daringly, 
they sought wealth farther and farther on the sea, until they 
passed even the Pillars of Hercules,' into the open Atlantic. 
By 1 100 B.C. the}/ had become the iraders of the world ; and we see 
them exchanging the precious tin of Britain, the yellow amber 
of the Haltic, and tlic slaves and ivory Of West Africa, 
for the spices, gold, scented wood, and j)recious stones 
of India. The ship that Xeco sent to circumnavigate .\frica 
was manned by Phoenician sailors; and the chief Phoenician 
cities, Tyre and Sidon, were among tiic most s])lendi(l and 
wealthy in the world. (Read Iv/ckiel. x\\ i \\\ ii, for a mag- 
nificent dcscrij)tion of tiic grandeur of Tyre and of the wide 
extent of her coinmerce.) 

' 'l^v() Idfty hills. oiR' (»n each side of tlip Strait of Clibraltar. beyond which 
the .\ncients generally thought lay inconceivable perils (niaj) after p. 70). 
40 



THE PHOENICIANS 47 

The Phoenicians were the first colonizers. They fringed The first 
the larger islands and the shores of the Mediterranean with J^n^history 
trading stations, which became new centers of civilization. 
Carthage, Utica, Gades (Cadiz, on the Atlantic), were among 
their colonies (map after p. 70). They worked tin mines in Col- 
chis, in Spain, and finally in Britain, and so made possible the 
manufacture of bronze on a larger scale than before, to replace 
stone implements. Probably they first introduced bronze into 
many parts of Europe. 

To get things wherewith to trade, the Phoenicians became Industries 
manufacturers, — learning from Egyptians and Bab\4onians to 
work in metals, glass, and textiles. Hammer, loom, potter's 
wheel, engraver's knife, were always busy in Tyre, and quan- 
tities of their products are found in ancient tombs of Greece Mission- 
and Italy — the earliest European homes of civilization. The cJ^i^zation 
Phoenicians were "missionaries" of culture. It was their func- 
tion not to create civilization, but to spread it. 

Their chief export, it is well said, was the alphabet. When The 
the Egyptians first conquered Syria, about 1600 a.d., the Phoeni- 
cians were using the cuneiform script of Babylon (introduced 
among them by Hammurapi's conquest). But their commerce 
made it necessary to keep complicated accounts and to com- 
municate with agents in distant ports. This called for a sim- 
pler way of writing; and, about 1100 B.C., we find them with 
a true alphabet of twenty-two letters — for consonant somids 
only — probably derived from Egyptian " sound-symbols." 

The Phoenician cities submitted easily, as a rule, to any Fall of Tyre 
powerful neighbor. From Babylonia, from Egypt, from Persia, 
in turn, they bought security by paying tribute in money and 
in ships. Assyria sought to annihilate the Phoenician cities, 
as rivals in trade, and did destroy many of them ; but Tyre 
was saved by her position on a rocky island-promontory. 
Finally, in 332 B.C., it was captured by Alexander the Great 
(p. 136). From this downfall the proud city never fully re- 
covered, and fishermen now spread their nets to dry in the sun 
on the bare rock where once her tall towers rose. 



48 



rUK HEBREWS 



Wandering 
shepherds 



II. rnr: ukrrews 

As tlic Phoenicians wciv men of the sea, so the early Hebrews 
were men of the desert. They appear first as wandering shep- 
herds along the grazing lands on the edge of the Arabian sands. 
Ahruhiim, the founder of the race, emigrated from **Ur of the 
Chaldees," about iMOO h.c He and his descendants, Isaac 




Thk ri;iMii.i; Land (,r (h.shkn To-day.— Palms arid yrain. From 
Petrie'.s Egypt and Isratl. 



and Jacoli, llxcd and ruled as j)atriarchal clu'efs, much as Arab 
sheiks do in the sauie regions to-day. 
The captiv- Finally, "the famine was sore in the land." Jacob and his 

sons, with their tribesmen and flocks, sought refuge in Egypt. 
Here they found Joseph, one of their brethren, already high 



ity in Egypt 



AND THEIR MISSION 49 

in royal favor. The rulers of Egypt at this time, too, were the 
Hyksos, themselves originally Arabian shepherds ; and the 
Hebrews were allowed to settle in the fertile pasturage of Go- 
shen, near the Red Sea, where flitting Arab tribes have always 
been wont to encamp. But soon the native Egyptian rule w^as 
restored by Theban pharaohs, "who knew not Joseph." These 
powerful princes of the New^ Empire (p. 25) reduced the He- 
brews to slavery, and employed them on great public works, 
and " made their lives bitter with hard bondage in mortar and 
in brick and in all manner of service in the field." 

Three centuries later, while the Egyptian government was in The Exodus 
a period of weakness and disorder, the oppressed people escaped 
to the Arabian desert again, led by the hero Moses. For a 
man's lifetime, the fugitives wandered to and fro, after their 
ancient manner ; but they were now a numerous people and 
had become accustomed to fixed abodes. About 1250 B.C., And the 
under Joshua, to whom Moses had turned over the leadership, conquest of 
they began to conquer the fertile valleys of Palestme for their 
home. Then followed two centuries of bloody warfare with 
their neighbors, some of whom had long before taken on the 
civilization of Babylonia. 

During this period the Hebrew^s remained a loose alliance Under the 
of twelve shepherd tribes, led by a series of popular heroes, J^^s®^ 
like Samson, Jephthah, Gideon, and Samuel, known as Judges. 
Much of the time there was great and ruinous disorder, and 
bands of robbers drove travelers from the highways. Finally, 
the Philistines for a time overran the land at will. 

Thus the Hebrews felt the necessity for stronger government. Kings and 
Saul, a mighty warrior, roused them against the Philistine PJ^opl^e^s 
spoilers, and led them to victory. In return they made him 
their first king. Alongside this monarch and his successors, 
however, there stood religious teachers without office but with 
great authority. These "prophets" were shepherd preachers, 
clad perhaps only in the sheepskin of the desert ; but they did 
not hesitate to rebuke or oppose a sovereign. 

David, the second king (about 1070-977), completely subdued 
the Philistines, and, taking shrewd advantage of the fact that 



50 



TIIK HEBREWS 



The king- 
dom of 
David 



Solomon 
and the 
Temple 
(977 
937 B.C. 



the ^rriit states on the Nile and the Euphrates were both in a 
period of decay, he raised the Hei)re\v state into a small empire 
m western Syria. He will he remembered longest, how- 
ever, as "the sweet singer of Israel." He was originally a 
shepherd boy who attracted Saul's favor by his beauty and 

his skill upon the 
harp ; and, in the 



THE SYRIAN 
DISTRICT 



f 4 H |\t t3| T E 8 V'-'' 

Sv-V \ i\ ^ \' 




most troublous days 
of his kingship, he 
sought rest and com- 
fort in composing 
songs and poems, 
which are now in- 
cluded in the sacred 
Book of Psalms. 

David's son, Solo- 
mon, built a noble 
temple at Jerusalem 
for the worship of 
Jehovah. Until this 
time the only sacred 
shrine of the He- 
brews had been a 
portable "Ark," 
suited to a primitive 
and nomad tribe ; 
and even now they 
lacked architectural 
skill to construct 
large buildings. But 
Solomon's ally, King 
Hiram of Tyre, sent 
skilled Phoenician 
builders for the work, 
and it was ((iiiiplrtcd with great magnificence. Solomon also 
built rich ])alaces witli liis foreign workmen, and copied within 
them the splendor and luxury of an Oriental court. 



>-n- 



..ro«T[» tNO CO.. 



AND THEIR MISSION 51 

The Hebrews now began to grow prosperous — with the usual 
inequality of great wealth and extreme poverty. And soon the 
prophets, like Mieah and Amos (the first social reformers in 
history), were denouncing fiercely the fraud and violence of the 
greedy rich, who *' corrupt judgment " (in law cases) and " grind 
the faces of the poor." The punishment for the nation, which 
they foretold, was already on the way. 

Solomon's reign closed the brief age of political greatness for the Division and 
Hebrews. The twelve tribes had not come to feel themselves 
really one nation. They had been divided into two groups 
in earlier times : ten tribes in one group ; two in the other. The 
"ten tribes" now held the north, the more fertile part of Pales- 
tine, with numerous cities. The "two tribes," in the rugged 
south, were still largely shepherds and herdsmen. David 
had belonged to the smaller group, and his early kingship had 
extended over only the two tribes. Jealousies against the rule 
of his house had smoldered all along among the ten tribes. 
Now came a final separation. Solomon's taxes had sorely 
burdened the people. On his death, the ten tribes petitioned 
his son for relief, and when the young king (Rehoboam) replied 
with haughty insult, they set up for themselves as the Kingdom 
of Israel, with a capital at Samaria. The tribes of Benjamin 
and Judah remained faithful to the house of David, and became 
the Kingdom of Judah, with the old capital, Jerusalem. 

The Kingdom of Israel lasted 250 years, until Sargon carried The 
the ten tribes into that Assyrian captivity in which they are captivities 
"lost" to history (p. 31). Judah lasted four centuries after the 
separation, most of the time tributary to Assyria or to Babylon. 
Finally, in punishment for rebellion, Nebuchadnezzar carried 
away the people into the Bahyloiiian caj^tivity (p. 33). 

When the Persians conquered Babylon, they showed special Priestly 
favor to the Jews, and the more zealous of the race returned 
to Judea. From this time, such control of their own affairs 
as was left to them by Persia was in the hands of the 
priests, led by the High Priest of the Temple. At this time 
the sacred writings of the Hebrews — our '* Old Testament " — ' 
were recopied and arranged in their present form. (In the 



the faith 



52 Till-: IIKHKMWS 

ciiilitli cciitiirv the Ilchrcws had l.onowc*! an alplialx't from the 
IMiociiiciaiis.) 

The faith in The H('l)r('\vs added notliiiiji; to inaterial cixilization, nor 
did they contrihntc dirct'tly to any art. Their work was 
liij^dier. Their reH^dous Hterature was the nohlest the world had 
seen, and it has passed into all the literatures of the ei\ ilized 
world ; hut even this is valuable not so much for its literary 
merit as for its moral teachings. The true hi.stori/ of the Ili'hrcw.s' is 
ihc record of their spiritual fjrouih. Their religion was infinitely 
purer and truer than any other of the aneient world. 

Growth of At first this lofty faith belonged to only a few — to the pa- 

triarehs, and later to the i)rophets, with a small following of 
the more spiritually minded of the nation. For a thousand 
years the common people, and some of the kings, were con- 
stantly falling away into the superstitions of their Syrian neigh- 
bors. But it is the supreme merit of the Hebrew^s that a rem- 
nant always clung to the higher religion, until it became the 
universal faith of that "chosen" and sifted people who, after 
the Babylonian captivity, found their way back to Judea through 
so many hardships. 



Suggestions for Review 

Let the class prepare review qi'jstioiLS, each member five or ten, to 
ask of the others. Criticize the questions, showing which ones help 
to bring out important facts and contrasts and likenesses, and which 
are merely trivial or curious. It is well to make lists of important 
names or terms for rapid drill, demanding brief but dear explanation 
of each term, i.e. cuneiform, shekel, Ht/ksos, papyrus. 

Satnplr Questions : (1) In what did the Egyptians excel the Babylo- 
nians? (2) In what did the Babylonians excel the Egyptians? (3) In 
what did the Persians excel both? (4) Trace the growth f)f the map 
for civilized countries, (o) Locate four centers of civilization for 
L500 B.r., and observe, on the map, where they would most naturally 
come in contact with one another. (()) What new center became promi- 
nent between 1700 and 1000 h.(.? (One more center for that age — 
Crete — is yet to be treated.) 

Caution: Make sure that the terms "empire," ".state," "tributary 
state," "civiliz.ation." have a definite meaning for the student. 






<EHtAiuru8^ 



GREECE 
ADJOINING COASTS 

(For (Kneral Reference) 

SCALE OF M"-E8 




60 76 100 m 



I I Tonlans 

1 ' I Dorians 

.Eollans 



.a( 



PART II— THE GREEKS 

Greece — that point of light in history ! — Hegel. 
We are all Greeks. Our laws, our literature, our religion, our art have 
their roots in Greece. — Shelley. 



chaptp:r VI 



AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, 3500-1200 B.C. ' 
At least as early as 3500 B.C. slim, short, dark-skinned men Aegean 



in the New-Stone stage, were living in round-hut villages on the 
shores and islands of the eastern Mediterranean. Especially 
about the Aegean Sea with its clustering 
islands, these men were making a graceful 
pottery charmingly decorated, and had de- 
veloped considerable trade. About 3000 B.C. 
these Aegeans learned the use of bronze 
from Egypt, and, having once begun, they 
soon drew many other gifts and hints from 
the Oriental states, to which they were so 
near. 

In the early period, leadership in the 
Aegean fell naturally to Crete. Old Greek 
legends represent that island as a leading 
source of Greek civilization and as the home 
of powerful kings long before the Greek 
tribes on the mainland rose out of barbar- y^^^ p^^qj^j Knossos 

ism; and recent excavations prove that (2200 b.c), with 
,1 , , , , , ,1 /-I J sea-life ornament, 

these legends are based on truth. Crete 

stretches its long body across the mouth of the Aegean, and 

forms a natural stepping-stone from Egypt to Europe. By 

2500 B.C. it had advanced far into the Bronze Age, and for 

53 



culture, 
3500 B.C. 




''^y 



Cretan 
leadership 



54 



THK EARLY ORKEKS 



the next tliousand years its civilization rivaled that of Egypt 
itself. Hand-made pottery gave way to admirable work on 
the potter's wheel; and the vase-paintings, of birds and beasts 
and plant and sea life, are more lifelike than anything in 
Egyptian art. The walls of the houses were decorated with a 
Remains at delicate "eggshell" ])oreelain, in artistic designs. At Knossos, 

a palace, built about 2200 



B.C., has been unearthed, 
si)reading over more than 
four acres of ground, with 
s])lendid halls, corridors, 
li\ing rooms, throne rooms, 
and treasure rooms, and 
with many frescoes depict- 
ing the brilliant life of the 
lords and ladies of the 
court. Especially amaz- 
ing are the bathrooms, 
with a drainage system 
"sii])erior to anything in 
Europe until the nine- 
'1^^^^ teenth century." The 
ISBI "" • aWHI pipes could be flushed ; 

and a man-trap permitted 
inspection and repair. 
Back of the Queen's apartments stood a smaller room with a 
baby's bath. (Recent excavations show such systems in still 
older EgNptian temj)les.) 

This palace is usually called the jialace of "King Minos." 
Minos was famed by the later (ireeks as a great Cretan lawgiver. 
We may think of him ruling widely o\-er the surrounding seas 
from his throne at Knossos. while Hannnurapi was issuing his 
code of laws at Babylon, oi- while some one of the beneficent 
pharaohs of the Middle Kingtlom was constructing the Egyj)- 
tian irrigation works, «)r about th(> time when Abraham set out 
from Vv of th(> Chaldees. 

In the treasure rooms of the palace at Knossos, there were 




Molt 



.- -^ ■.!■ Knossos, 

with terrarotta drain pipes. 



I 



w 




3 - 






in 



— 5 li^ 



o 

C^ i " 



r rj c 



CRETAN CIVILIZATION 



55 



found numbers of small clay tablets covered with ivriting — appar- 
ently memoranda of the receipt of taxes. These, and other such 
remains since discovered, show 
that the Cretans had developed 
a system of syllabic writing, 
based on Egyptian sound sym- 
bols, but more advanced. Un- 
happily scholars have not yet 
learned to read it. A Roman 
historian who wrote a little 
before the birth of Christ men- 
tions that in his day the Cre- 
tans claimed that their ances- 
tors had invented the alphabet, 
and that the Phoenicians had 
only made it better known. 
Modern Cretans had forgotten 
this claim ; but these recent dis- 
coveries give it much support. 

Each home wove its own cloth, as we learn from the loom- 
weights in every house. Each home, too, had its stone mortars 



A Cretan 
alphabet 




Cretan Writing of 2200 b.c. — 
Plainly some of these characters 
are numerals. Others resemble 
later Greek letters. 



Tools and 
utensils 



i. il .^ - . 








"^ 






/ 





Cooking Utensils of 2200 b.c, found in one tomb at Knossos. 



56 



TTTE EARLY GREEKS 



for grinding the daily supply of meal. Kitchen utensils were 
varied and numerous, and strangely modern in shape. Most 
cooking was done over an open fire of sticks — though sometimes 
there was a sort of recess in a hearth, over which a kettle stood. 
When the destroying foe came upon Knossos, one carpenter 
left his kit of tools hidden under a stone slab, which preserved 
tlicin ; and among them we find saws, hammers, adz, chisels 
hea\ y and light, awls, nails, files, and axes. They are of bronze, 




Tuf: (Iatk of thk Lions at Mycenae. — The huge stono at the top of 
the Kate, supportiiiK the lions, is 15 feet long and 7 feet thick. Enemies 
could reach the pate only by passing between long stone walls — from 
l^hiiid which archers could shoot down upon them. 



of course, but in shape they are so like our own that it seems 
probable that this handicraft passed down its skill without a 
break from the earliest European civilization to the present. 
One huge crosscut saw. like oiu' hinib(M'man's, was found in 
a mountain town. 

("rctc (lid not stand l)y its(>lf in its (•ultur<'. The Greeks of 
the historical period had many legends about the glories of 
an older Mycenae "rich in gold." And there, in Argolis, some 
fifty years ago an explorer uncovered remains of an ancient 



PROGRESS BEFORE HOMER 



57 



city of perhaps 1200 b.c, with peculiar, massive (" Cyclopean") 
walls. Within were found a curious group of tombs where 
lay in state the embalmed bodies of ancient kings, — 

" in the splendor of their crowns and breastplates of embossed plate of 
gold; their swords studded with golden imagery; their faces covered 
strangely in golden masks. The very floor of one tomb was thick with 
gold dust — the heavy gilding from some perished kingly vestment. 
In another was a downfall of golden leaves and flowers. And amid 
this profusion of fine fragments were rings, bracelets, . . . dainty 
butterflies for ornaments, and a wonderful golden flower on a silver 
stalk." 

For Further Reading. — Specially suggested : Davis' Readings, 
I, No. 32, gives an interesting extract from an account of Cretan re- 
mains by one of the discoverers. Additional, for students who wish 
wider reading: Hawes, Crete the Fore-runner of Greece; or Baikie, Sea 
Kings of Crete. 




Bronze Dagger from Mycenae, inlaid with gold. — This dagger was 
prominent in the " Greek Exhibit " sent to America by the Greek govern- 
ment just after the World War and shown in various of our cities. 



CHAPTER VII 



THE GREEKS OF HOMER 



Barbarian 
Achaeans 
from the 
north 



About 1500 B.C. hands of tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed, semi- 
barbarous .If /?r/ra//.s' from tlu' north, drawn by the splendor and 
ric'lu's of the south, broke into the Aegean lands, as northern 
barbarians many times sinee have broken into southern Europe. 
Some fortunate ehanee had given these mighty-limbed strangers 
a knowledge of iron ; and now, armed with long iron swords, 
and bringing their flocks and herds, with their women and 
children in rude carts drawn l)y horses, they established them- 
selves among the short, dark, })ronze-weapone(l natives, became 
their masters, dwelt in their cities, married their women, and 
possessed the land. 



This occupation was a slow process, working unrecordef 
misery on generation after generation of the gentler nati\-es 
For the most part, the newcomers filtered in, band bv 



Troy and 
the Homeric 
poems 



band, 

seizing a valley or an island at a time. Occasionally, however, 
large armies warred long and desperately al)out some strong- 
hold of the old ei\ ilization. Knossos had never had walls : 
it had trusted for defense to its position on an island and to 
its sea-power ; and it fell early before fleets of Achaean sea- 
rovers. In walled cities like Mycenae, the old culture li\ cd 
on three or four centuries more. The legends of the Trojan 
War were probably based on one of the closing struggles. 

Our knowledge of the Achaeans comes largely from the so- 
called "Homeric poems," the Iliad and the Odi/sscy. The 
later Greeks believed that these were eom])o.sed about 1000 B.C. 
by a blind minstrel named Homer. Scholars now think that 
each collection was nuide u]) of man\ ballads sung originally 
by different bards at dilVcrcnt times and luinded down orally 
from father to son for centuries before they were put into writ- 
ing. The Iliad describes part of a ten-year siege of Troy by 

58 



HOMER'S "ACHAEANS" 59 

Achaean chieftains from all parts of Greece. The Odyssey 
tells the adventures and wanderings of Odysseus (Ulysses), 
one of the heroes, in the return from that war. Whether or 
not there was a Trojan War, the poems certainly tell us much 
about the customs and ideas of the Greeks of 1100 B.C. ; and 
their pictures of Greek life have been confirmed by recent exca- 
vation of remains in the soil. 

The first explorer in this field of excavation in Greek lands Schlie- 

was Dr. Henry Schliemann. When Schliemann was a child in a "J^^^ ^ 

. . . story 

German village, his father told him the Homeric stories, and 

once showed him a fanciful picture of the huge " W^alls of Troy. " 
The child was told that no one now knew just where Troy had 
stood, and that the city had left no traces ; but he insisted that 
such walls must have left remains that could be uncovered 
by digging; and his father playfully agreed that sometime 
Henry should find them. Later, the boy heard that the learned 
scholars of his day did not believe that "Troy" had ever existed. 
This aroused in him a fierce resentment ; and to carry out his 
childhood dream of finding the great walls of Homer's city be- 
came the passion of his life. 

In 1870, after many years spent in w^inning the necessary Excavations 
wealth and learning. Dr. Schliemann began excavations at a ** ^'"^^ 
little village in "Troy -land," on a mound of earth three miles 
inland from the shore. The explorations continued more than 
twenty years and disclosed the remains of nine distinct 
towns, one above another. The oldest, on native rock, some 
fifty feet below the present surface, was a rude village of the 
Stone Age. The second, thought by Schliemann to be Homer's 
Troy, showed powerful walls, a citadel that had been de- 
stroyed by fire, and a civilization marked by bronze w^eapons 
and gold ornaments. We know now that this city belonged 
to the early Cretan age, and that it passed away more than 
a thousand years before Homer's time. Above it came the 
remains of three inferior settlements, and .then — the sixth 
layer from the bottom — a much larger and finer city, which 
had perished in conflagration some 1100 or 1200 years before 
Christ. Explorations, after Schliemann's death, proved this 



60 



EARLY CrREEKS 



sixth city to he tlu' Troy described so fully in the Iliad (Above 
this Homeric Troy came an old Greek city, a magnificent city 
of the time of Alexander the Great, a Roman city, and, finally, 
the s(jualid Turkish village of to-day. The position of these 
towns commanded the trade between the Black Sea regions 
and the Aegean. This accounts, probably, for the succession 




A S.MALI. FV\i>T OF rm. I ' \' 



of cities tliere. ;nid |)erlia])S for tlic destruction of some of them 
in war by tra<h'-ri\ als.) 

Tile tall, f;iir, xcllow-haired Achaeans of the Homeric poems 
Irft no trace among the Greeks of history a few centuries later. 
Their l)lood was absorlx-d into that of the more numerous and 
Ix'tter-acclimated Aegeans among wlioui they settled, and 
the (ireeks of later history were short jind dark. Hut first the 
Achaeans had imposed their language on the eon(|uered people,^ 

' Sonic AcKe:in words .siirx ivi'd in tlio later Greek. Thus the Clreek 
word for hath-tuh eonies from the older laiiKuage. What fart in civilization 
is suggested by this fact in language? 



HOMER'S "ACHAEANS" 61 

as conquerors usually do. The change in language, and the 
ignorance of the invading barbarians, explains the loss of the 
Aegean art of writing — which probably had been known onl}^ 
to a small class of scribes. Most of the art and refinement 
of the old civilization also perished. But much of the customs 
and beliefs of the common people survived, to mingle with 
those of the conquerors. 

When Achaeans and Aegeans had blended into "Greeks" Tribe and 
(1100 or 1000 B.C.), they were made up of many tribes. Each ^^^ 
tribe was composed of people living in one neighborhood and 
believing in a common ancestor. A tribe ivas made up of 
clans (gentes). A clan was a group of real kindred, a sort of 
enlarged family. The nearest descendant of the forefather of 
the clan, counting from oldest son to oldest son, was the clan- 
elder, — a kind of " priest-king" ; and the clan-elder of the lead- 
ing clan in the tribe was the tribal "priest-king." 

The tribe usually settled in separate clan villages in the valleys Tribal cita- 

about some convenient hill. On the hilltop was the meeting 9^}^ ^°^ 

\ '^ into cities 

place of the whole tribe for worship ; and a ring wall, at a con- 
venient part of the slope, easily turned this sacred place into a 
citadel. In hilly Greece many of these citadels grew up 7iear to- 
gether; and so, very early, groups of tribes combined further. 
This made a city. The chief of the leading tribe then became the 
priest-king of the city. The later Athenians had a tradition 
that in very early times the hero Theseus founded their city 
by bringing together four tribes living in Attica. 

// the cities could have combined into larger units, Greece might 
have become a "nation-state, '" like modern England or France. 
But the Greeks, in the time of their glory, never got 
beyond a city-state. To them the same word meant " city" 
and "state. " To each Greek, his city was his country. The 
political ^ relations of one city with another five miles 
away were foreign relations, as much as its dealings with 
the king of Persia. Wars, therefore, were constant. 

1 "Political" means "relating to government." 



G2 



IIOMKR'S (IKM'IFKS; 



Each city, like each of the old trilx-s, had a killer, a council 
of chiefs, and a popular as^mhly. 

The king was /rr///r/- in ivar, jucUjc In pence, and prie.st at all 
times; hut his power was nuich limited hy custom. 

The council of chiefs were originally the clan elders and tiie 
members of the royal family. Socinlli/ tlicy were the king's 
equals; and /// (jovernnient he could not do anytliing in defiance 
of their wish. 

The common freemen came together for worsliip and for 
games ; and sometimes the king called them together, to listen 
to ])lans that had been adopted by him and the chiefs. There 
the freemen shouted approval or muttered disapproval. They 
could not start new movements. There were no regular meet- 
ings and few spokesmen; and the general reverence for the 
chiefs made it a daring deed for a common man to brave them. 

However, even in war, when the authority of the nobles was 
greatest, the Assembly had to be persuaded : it could not he 
ordered.^ Homer shows that sometimes a common man ven- 
tured to o})pose the "kings." In an Assembly of the army 
before Troy, the discouraged Greeks break away to launch 
their ships and return home. Odysseus hurries among them, 
and l)y jx-rsuasion and thrt^ats forces them back to the Asseml)ly, 
until only Thersites bawls on, — "Thersites, uncontrolled of 
speech, whose mind was full of words where irith to strive nc/ainst 
the chiefs. Hateful was lie to Achilles aboxc all, and to Odys- 
seus, for them he w(ts tront to revile. But now with shrill shont 
he poured forth his nphrnidings eveti npon goodl}/ Aganietnuon'" 
[the chief commander of the Greeks]. Odysseus, it is true, 
rebukes Thersites sternly and smites him into silence, while 
the crowd laughs. "Homer" sang to ])lease the chieftains. 



' KiiiU, ("ouncil of ("liirf.<, and popular .\ssimu1)1.\ wrro tlu' germ.s of later 
Tnon(irrhir, (difjarcftir, atul ihmocralic Rovcriimont. A monarchy, in the first 
nioaniiin of the word, is a state ruled by one man, a "monarch." An oli- 
Karchy is a state riiled hy a '"few," or hy a small class. A democracy is a 
state where the wh«)le people govern. In ancient history the words are used 
with these meanings. Sometintes "aristocracy" is used with nmch the same 
force as " oligarchy." (In modern times the word " monarchy" is used some- 
tin)(^s of a Kovernment like England, which is monarchic om1\' in form, hut 
which reallv is a democracv.) 



SOCIETY AND LIFE 63 

his patrons, — and so he represents Thersites as a cripple, ugly 
and unpopular ; but there must have been popular opposition 
to the chiefs, now and then, or the minstrel would not have 
mentioned such an incident at all. 

Society was simple. When the son of Odysseus, in the poem, A simple 
visits a city where some of the old Mycenean greatness survives, ^^"^ ^ 
he is astounded by the splendor of the palace, with its " gleam as 
of sun and moon," lighted as it was by torches held by massive 
golden statues, — the walls blazing with bronze and with glit- 
tering friezes of blue glass. Mighty Odysseus had built his 
palace with his own hands, and it has been well called — from 
the poet's description — "a rude farmhouse, where swine wallow 
in the court." The one petty island, too, in which Odysseus 
was head-king, held scores of yet poorer "kings." So, too, 
when Odysseus is shipwrecked on an island, he finds the 
daughter of the chief king — the princess Nausicaa — doing a 
washing, with her band of maidens, treading out the dirt by 
trampling the clothes with their bare feet in the water of a 
running brook, much as the peasants of southern Europe do 
to-day. 

Manners were harsh. In the Trojan War, when the Trojan Rude and 
hero, Hector, fell, the Greek kings gathered about the dead harsh 
body, " a7id no one came who did not add his wound." The 
commonest boast was to have given a foe's body to be half 
devoured by the packs of savage dogs that hung about the 
camp for such morsels. The chiefs were borne to the combat 
in chariots. They were clad in bronze armor, and fought with 
bow and spear. A battle was little more than a series of single 
combats between these warriors. The common freemen followed 
on foot, without armor or effective weapons, and counted for 
little except to kill the wounded and strip the slain. 

The mass of the people were small farmers, though their Life and 
houses were grouped in villages. Even the kings tilled their ^°^ 
farms, in part at least, with their own hands. Odysseus boasts 
that he can drive the oxen at the plow and "cut a clean fur- 
row" ; and when the long days begin he can mow all day with 
the crooked scythe, " pushing clear until late eventide. " There 



64 



IIOMKR'S aUKEKS 



Religion of 
tiie clan 



And of the 
home 



had appeirtMl a class of miserable landless freemen (perhaps 
descended from dispossessed Aegean farmers) who hired them- 
selves to farmers. When th? ghost of AchilU's (the invincible 
Greek chieftain) wishes to name to Odysseus the most Yinhappy 
lot among mortals, he selects that of the hired servant (p. 66). 
Slaves were few, except about the great chiefs. There they 
served as household servants and as farm hands ; and they seem 
to have been treated kindly. When Odysseus returned from his 
twenty years of war and wandering, he made himself known 
first to a faithful swineherd and to one other slave — and 
"they threw their arms round wise Odysseus tind passionately 
kissed his face and neck. So likewise did Odysseus kiss their 
heads and hands. " 

Artisans and smiths were found among the retainers of the 
great chiefs. They were highly honored, but their skill was 
far inferior to that of tlu> Aegean age. vSome shields and inlaid 
weapons of that earlier j)eriod had passed into the hands of 
the Achaeans ; and th(^se were always spoken of as the work 
of Hej)haestus, the god of fire and of metal work. 

A separate class of traders had not arisen. The chiefs, in 
the inter\als of farm labor, turned to trading voyages now and 
then, and did not hesitate to increase their profits by pi racy. 
It was no ollense to ask a stranger wliether he came as a pirate 
or for peaceful trade (Odi/.s-sry, ni, ()0-70). 

The clan riligion was a worsliip of clan ancestors. If pro- 
vided with pleasing meals at proper times and invoked with 
magic fornuilas (so the belief ran), the mighty ghosts of ancient 
clan elders would continue to aid tlieir children. Tlu> clan tomb 
was the altar. Milk and wine were pourc^l into a hollow in 
the ground, while the clan elder, the only lawful priest, spoke 
sacred fornudas in\ iting the dead to eat. 

In like manner, the families of the clan each came to have its 
sej)aratejV/ /////// irorshipDi ancestors. Thr hrnrih wan ihr family 
altar. Near it were grouped the Ptn(tti.s, or images of household 
gods who watched over the family. Thr fathtr iras thr priest. 
Before each meal, he poured out on the hearth the Uhntion, 
or food-otfering, to tlu- family gods and asked their l)lessing. 



RELIGION 



65 



Originally, no doubt, the family tomb was ujider the hearth. 
(Cf. the Cave Men, p. 3.) This explains why the hearth became 
an altar, and why food offerings to ancestors continued to be 
made there all through Greek and Roman history. 

But the religion of which we hear most in Greek literature The 
grew out of a nature worship. The lively fancy of the Greeks ^^^^^^^ 
personified the forces of nature in the forms and characters 
of men and women — built in 
a somewhat more majestic 
mold than human men. The 
great gods lived on cloud- 
capped Mount Olympus, and 
passed their days in feasting 
and laughter and other pleas- 
ures. When the chief god, 
Zeus, slept, things sometimes 
went awt\% for other gods 
plotted against his plans. His 
wife Hera was exceedingly 
jealous — for which she had 
much reason — and the two 
had many a family wrangle. 
Some of the gods went down 

to aid their favorites in war, and were wounded by human 
vveapons. The twelve great Olympian deities were (Latin 
names in parentheses) : 




ZeI 8 



Zeus (Jupiter), the supreme god; god of the sky; "father of gods 

and men." 
Poseidon (Neptune), god of the sea. 

Apollo, the sun god; god of wisdom, poetry, prophecy, and medicine. 
. Ares (Mars), god of war. 
Hephaestus (Vulcan), god of fire — the lame smith. 
Hermes (Mercury), god of the wind; messenger; god of cunning, of 

thieves, and of merchants. 
Hera (Juno), sister and wife of Zeus ; queen of the sky. 
Athene (Minerva), goddess of wisdom; female counterpart of Apollo. 
Artemis (Diana), goddess of the moon, of maidens, and of hunting. 
Aphrodite (Venus), goddess of love and beauty. 



66 IK )M Kirs GKEKKS 

Demeter (Ceres), the earth goddess — controlUng fertiUty. 
Hestia (Vesta), the deity of the home; goddess of the hearth fire. 

All the world about wun peopled, in (ireek imagination, l)y a 
multitude of lesser local ifods and demigods — spirits of spring 
and wood and river and hill — ail of whom, too, were personi- 
fied as glorious youths or maidens. To give the gods beautiful 
Innnan forms, rather than the revolting bodies of lower animals 
and reptiles, was an advance, exi'U though it fell far short of 
the noble religious ideas of the Hebrews and Persians. 

As to the future life the Greeks beliexcd in a place of teriible 
pimishment ( Tari(irus) for a few great offenders a(/(iifi.st the 
(jods, and in an FJi/.s-ium of supreme pleasure for a \ery few others 
particularly favored by the gods. But for the mass of men the 
future life was to l)e "a washed-out copy of the brilliant life on 
earth" — its pleasures and pains both shadowy. Thus Odys- 
seus tells how he met Achilles in tlie liome of the dead : 

"And he knew me straightway, when he had drimk the dark blood [of 
a sacrifice to the dead] ; yea, and he wept aloud, and shed big tears as 
he stretched forth his hands in his longing to reach me. But it might 
not be, for he had now no steadfast streytgth nor power at all in moiing, 
such as was aforetime in his supple liml)s. . . . But lo, other spirits 
of the dead that be departed stood sorrowing, and asked concerning 
those that were dear to them." And in their talk, Achilles exclaims 
sorrowfully: "Nay, speak not comfortably to me of death, O great 
Ody.s.seus. Rather would I lire on ground as the hireling of another, even 
with a lack-land man who had no great livelihood, than hear S2vay among 
all the dead.'' 

For Further RE.\DiNf;. — Specialhj suggested: Davis' Readings, I, 
No-. 33-39. Additional: Bury, pp. ()9-79. The legends of heroes 
and demigods, like Hercules, The.seus, and Jason, are retold charmingly 
for young people by Hawthorne, Gayley, Guerlier, and Kingsley. 



CHAPTER VIII 

FROM THE TROJAN TO THE PERSIAN WAR 

1000-500 B.C. 

I. THE DORIANS AND NEW GREEK MIGRATIONS 

About 1000 B.C. Greek civilization was checked again, for a The Dorian 
hundred years, by invasions from the north. The new bar- <^<*^*i"®st 
barians called themselves Dorians. They were probably merely 
a rear-guard of the xAchaean invasion, delayed somewhere in 
the north for two or three centuries. But in this interval 
they had come to fight as heavy-armed infantry in close ranks, 
with long spears projecting from the array of shields. The 
Achaeans, who fought still in loose Homeric fashion, could not 
stand against this disciplined onset. 

The Dorians settled mainly in the Peloponnesus ; and that And other 
district (the old center of both Aegean and Achaean glory) ^g^^t^ons 
lost its leadership in all but war. When civilization took a 
new start among the Greeks, soon after 900 B.C., it was from 
new centers, especially in Attica and in Asia Minor. 

The peninsula of Attica, guarded on the land side b\' rugged lonians in 

mountains, was the one part of southern Greece not overrun ^^^^^ 

by the Dorians. The Greeks there had come to call themselves 

lonians. Many fugitives from the Peloponnesus sought Coloniza- 

refuge in Attica. But Attica could not support all the new- *^°" °^,*^®. 

cofl.st of A.sifl, 
comers ; and, after a brief stay, many passed on across the Minor 

Aegean, to the coast of Asia Minor. There they established 
themselves in twelve great cities, of which the most important 
were Miletus and Ephesus (map after 52). All the middle 
district of that coast took the name Ionia, and looked upon 
Ionian Athens as a mother-city. Other Greek tribes soon colo- 
nized the rest of the eastern Aegean coast. 

While the Greeks were so dispersing in space, they were 

67 



68 



TTir<: riREKKJ^. 1000-500 B.r. 



Oneness of 
feeling 
among all 
Hellenes 



Due to 
language 



And to 
Religion 



The Olym- 
pic games 



l)('«;iniiin^^ to ^n-ow to^^cthcr in feeling-. Tlicy remained in 

wholly sej)arate "states"; hut they had come to helieve in a 
kinship with one another, to take pride in their common civili- 
zation, and to set themselves apart from the rest of the world. 
The chief forces which had created this oneness of feeling 
were (1) language and litcraturr, and (2) the Olympian religion. 

1. The Greeks understood one another's dialects, while the 
men of other speech about them they called " Harharians," 
or babblers (Bar'-bar-oi). This liheness of language made it 
possible for all Greeks to possess the same literature. The poems 
of " Homer" were sung and recited in every village for centuries. 

2. The religious features that helped especially to bind 
Greeks together were the Olympic Games and the Delphic 
Oracle. 

To some great festivals of the gods, men flocked from all 
Hellas. This was especially true of the Olympic games. These 
were celebrated each fourth year at Olympia, in Elis, in honor 
of Zeus. The contests consisted of foot races, chariot races, 
wrestling, and boxing. The victors were felt to have won the 
highest honor open to any Greek. They received merely an 
olive wreath at Olympia ; but at their homes their victories 
were commemorated by inscriptions and statues. Only Greeks 
could take part in the contests, and wars between Greek states 
were commonly suspended during the month of the festival. 

To these games came merchants, to secure the best market 
for rare wares. Heralds proclaimed treaties there — as the 
best way to make them known through all Hellas. .\s ei\ iliza- 
tion grew, poets, orators, and artists gathered there; and 
gradually the intellectual contests and exhibitions became the 
most im])ortant feature of the meeting. The oration or poem 
or statue which was ])raise<l by the crowds at ()lym])ia had 
reeei\'ed the approval of tlie most select and intelligent judges 
that could be brought together anywhere in the world. 

The four-year |)eriods between the games were called Olym- 
])i(uis. These j)eriods finally became the Greek units in count- 
ing time : all e\'ents were dated from wliat was believed to be 
the first recorded Olympiad, beginning in 776 B.C. 



PLATE XVII 





Ahiivk. — Hnxs OK Entka.\<k to rm; Sivdh m at Olympia. passing 
from the Toinplf of Zi'us. 

Bklow. — Ruins of the Stauum at Delphi. — The festival there in 
honor of Apollo was ^jecond only to the Olympic Games. 



ART AND SCTENrR 69 

Apollo, the sun god, was also the god of prophecy. His The Delphic 
chief temple was at Delphi, far up the slopes of Parnassus, ^^^^ 
amid wild and rugged scenery. From a fissure in the ground, 
within the temple, volcanic gases poured forth. A priestess 
would inhale the gas until she seemed to pass into a trance, 
and, while in this state, she was supposed to see into the future 
by the aid of the god. The advice of this "oracle'' teas sought 
by men and by governments throughout all Hellas. 

II. INDUSTRY, ART, AND SCIENCE 

After the overthrow of the Cretan sea-kings and the ruin of Phoenician 
the Cretan civilization, about 1500 B.C., Phoenicia for a thou- i^^^ence 
sand years was almost the only sea-power of the Mediterranean. 
Along the Greek coasts and islands her traders bartered with 
the inhabitants (much as European traders did three centuries 
ago with American Indians), tempting them to high payments 
for strange wares — lions and other beasts carved in little 
ivory ornaments, purple robes, blue-glass bottles, or perhaps 
merely colored glass trinkets — and counting it best gain of all 
if they could lure curious maidens aboard their black ships 
for distant slave markets. In return, they made many an 
unintended payment. Language show^s that they gave the 
Greeks the names, and so no doubt the use, of linen, cinnamon, 
soap, lyres, cosmetics, and tablets. The forgotten art of writ- 
ing, too, they introduced again. 

But the lively Greeks ivere not slavish imitators. They added 
vowel letters to the Phoenician signs, and so first completed the 
alphabet. Soon they began to manufacture the Phoenician 
trade articles for themselves, and finally they became successful 
rivals in trade. 

About 800 B.C. the Greeks entered on a new colonizing move- Greek col- 

ment, which continued two hundred vears (800-600 B.C.), and 2^^^^^*®"^ 

*^ 8oo B.C. 

doubled the area of Greek settlement. The cause, this time, 

was not war. The new colonies were founded largely for trad- 
ing stations, — to capture trade from the Phoenicians, — and 
at the same time to provide the crowded and discon- 



70 



THK (JRKKKS RKFOF^K .-)(¥) B.C. 



Growth of 
manufac- 
tures 



tontt'd f;irmlii»i- class with new land. Miletus sent colony 
after colony to the north .shore of the BUwk Sea, to control 
the corn grain trade there. Sixty Greek tow ns fringed that sea 
and its straits. The one city of Chalcis, in Kuhoea, planted 
thirty-two colonies on fhr Thracian cod.st, to secure the gold 
and silver mines of that region. On the west, *S/V/7v hecame 

almost wholly Greek, and 
.southern Itdli/ took the 
proud name of Magna 
Graecia (Great Greece). 
Among the more im- 
portant of the colonies 
were Sj/racurse in Sicily, 
Ta rent urn, Si/baris, and 
C'roton in Italy, Corcyra 
near the mouth of the 
Adriatic, Massilia (Mar- 
seilles) in Gaul, Oliinthus in 
Thrace, Ci/rrnc in Africa, 
Byzantium at the Black 
Sea's mouth, and Nau- 
cratis in Egypt (p. 27). 
The colonists ceased to 
he citizens in their old 
homes. Each new city 
enjoyed complete inde- 
pendence. It kept a strong fr'undship for its "metropolis" 
(motlier city) ; l)ut there was no political union between them. 
While trade was sowing cities along the distant Mediterranean 
sliores, it also brought ;in industrial revival in old Greece. 
The ships that sailed forth from Athens or Corinth or Miletus 
carried metal work, vases, and textiles, and brought home, 
from the Hlack Sea regions, amber, fish, grain, and sometimes 
products of the distant East that liad reached the I^lack Sea 
by caravan. To keep up a supply for the export trade, the 
Greek artisans had to j)r()duce more and more, and more and 
more improve their ])ro(lucts — as with Phoenicia earlier. 




Attic Vask. Sixth C'pntikv n.c., now in 
Boston Museum <A Fine Arts. The fifi- 
ures pieture scenes from a battle of gods 
with giants. 




60 ioo ijyo So 7>m sito 

lonlua I 



Dorian I l Othcr Greek Jlacea 

■ (rhcrnician) 



6 Lonifitude AVest 



10 Lonjfitude 16 



ART AND SCIENCE 



71 



In Athens one large section of the city was given wholly to great 
factories in which beautiful pottery was made (see " Ceramicus " 
in the plan of Athens, p. 101) ; and vases of this period, signed 
by artists in these factories, are unearthed to-day all the way 
from central Asia Minor to northern Italy. 

Oriental vase-painting had delighted in forms half-human, 
half-beast, as Oriental sculpture did. But Greeks now dropped 
all unnatural features from their art — first of all peoples — and 
found increasing satisfaction in depicting the beauty of the 
human body, with or without draperies. The artist first 
colored the vase black, and then painted his designs in red on 



Vase- 
paintings 
and what 
they teach 



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Ground Plan of the Temple of Theseus at Athens (p. 79). 



that background. He began, too, to see how to draw figures 
in perspective, and a growing interest in everyday life is shown 
by an increasing proportion of scenes from the work and play 
of common men. (See cuts, pp. 97, 115, 125, etc.) 

About 600, architecture made marked advance, and began Architecture 
to show a character distinct from that of Egyptian archi- 
tecture — on which it was founded. Its chief use was in build- 
ing temples for the gods, rather than in palaces as in the Cretan 
age. In every Greek city, through the rest of Greek his- 
tory, the temples were the most beautiful and most noticeable 
structures. 

The plan of the Greek temple was very simple. People did 
not gather within the building for service, as in our churches, 



THK GHFEKS UKKOKK :.(X) B.C 



Poetnr 



nor did trix-^ps of priests live there, as in Oriental temples. 
The inelostnl part of the huililing, therefore, was small and 
rather ilark. — containuij: only one or two nxims, for the 
statues of the iiixl and the altar and the Siife-keeping of the 
otTerincs. It was merely the gixi's house, where ptx^ple wuld 
brinj: him otTeriuirs when they wisheii to ask favors. 

The temple was rtx^tauirular. The rcx^f pn^jtvttxi l>eyond 
the inclosed pxirt of the Iniilding, and was suppurteii not l\v 

walls, but bv a row of 



ci^lumns running around 
the four siiles. The iia- 
1>K^ (JMdimcnt:t^ in front 
and rear wert^ low, and 
were tilleii with rrlitf 
.statuary, as was als(^> the 
fruz*\ l>etween the ci^r- 
nict^ and the columns. 
Sometimes there was a 
-econd frieze upon the 
walls of the building in- 
side the a^lonnade. The 
Iniilding tix^k much of its 
Ueauty fn^m its ciA^n- 
nades. The hint was 
taken fn^m Egypt ; but 
the GrtH^ks far surpiisseil 
all prtnious builders in 
the use of the ci^lumn 
I he chitf iiij[Ftrrncts in the 







Okukr 



1. shaft : 2, capital : 3, frirsp; 4. p<»mtce: 5. pan 
rool, »)ioviQc low sJojH 



and in -' ^ he cx'klumn iiselt 
styU^ of 'f wtrr marlctd by tht co/MmiK* and tktir capitah. 

Acconiing to differences in these features, a building is said to 
Wlong to the Doric or Ionic "onier." l^uer there was 
develo|XHl a Corinthian tmler. iStH" cuts hennvitii. and (Mi pp. 
To. 79. 2lS.and Plate^ XXll. XWll ^ 

In /Hvfry theri^ was more progrt^ss even than in arehittvtunv 
The earlit^t Gnvk jxx^try hail Ux^n made up of fmllad,*. cele- 
brating war> and henx^ Tht^^ ballads were storie:> in \ erse. 



I 



ART AXD SCIF.XOK ^o 

sung by wanderinix minstrels. The greatest of such composi- 
tions rose to epic portri/, of which the Iliud and Oih/ssri/ are the 
niU^lest examples. Their period is called the Kpic Agr. 

In the seventh and sixth centuries, most poetry consisted of 
odes and songs in a great varidi/ of nh'trr,'^. Love and pleasure 
are the favorite themes, and the poems tleseribe tlie frrUngs 
of fhc wriivr rather than the deeds of some one else. Tliese 
poems were intended to be simg to the accompaniment of the 
lyre (a sort of harpV They are therefore called h/rics : and the 
seventh and sixth centuries are known as the Li/ric Agr. 

Pindar, the greatest of many great lyric poets, came from 
Boeotia. He delighted especially to celebrate tiie rushing 
chariots and glorious athletes of the Olympic games. Sappho, 
of Lesbos, wrote exquisite love songs, of which a few fragments 
siu'vive. The ancients were wont to call her "the poetess," 
just as they referred to Homer as '*the poet." 

Two other poets of this age represent anotlier kind of poetry. 
One was Thcsipis, at Athens, who wrote the first pIai/,\\ The 
other, Hcsiod of Boeotia (about 800 B.C.), wove together into 
a long poem old stories of the creation and of the birth and 
relationship of the gods (the Thcogoui/), and wrote also remark- 
able home-like poems on farm life (ILo/Aw and Datjii) which 
made a sort of textbook on agricultiu'e (Davis' Readings). 
Hesiod was himself a hard-toiling farmer, and his pictin-es of 
the dreary life of a Greek peasant help us to understand the 
colonizing movement of his time. 

In Ionia, in the sixth century B.C., men first began fearlessly Philosophy 
to try to explain the origin of the universe. Thairs, of Miletus, 
taught that all things came from water : that is, from the 
condensation of an original all-pervading moistiu'c. One of 
his disciples affirmed that the world had evolved from a fiery 
ether. Another taught that the higher animal forms liad 
developed from lower forms. These explanations were merely 
daring guesses ; but the great thing is that men shoidd have 
begim to think about natural causes at all. in place of the old, 
supposed .v?/2^rrnatural causes, for all that happens. Thales 



74 THE GREEK^^ BEFORE 500 B.C. 

argued that the movements of sun and stars were determined, 
not by the whims of gods who dwelt in them, as people thouglit, 
but hy fixed natural lair; and he proved his argument hy \nv- 
dicting an eclipse of the sun — which came off as he had fore- 
told. (He had visited Egypt ; and some writers guess that he 
had had access to the astronomical observations of the Bal)y- 
lonians. He foretold about the time of the eclipse, not the exact 
hour or minute.) 

In Magna Graecia, Pythagoras sought the explanation of the 
universe, not in any kind of matter, but in Number, or II a r- 
mony. This, he said, was th-e principle that had brought 
order out of primeval chaos. His disciples, naturally, paid 
much attention to mathematics ; and to Pythagoras himself 
is ascribed the famous demonstration in geometry that the 
square on the longest side of the right-triangle is equal to the 
sum of the scpiares on the two other sides. The Pythagoreans, 
too, especially connected "philosoj)hy" (the name for their 
study of the beginnings of things) with human eonduct. The 
harmony in tlic outer world, they urged, should be nuitched 
by harmony in the soul of man. 

III. THE "PEOPLE" RULE AT ATHENS 

The kings go Between 1000 and 500 B.C., the "kings" disappeared from all 
Greek cities except Sparta and Argos — and there they kept 
litth- but their dignity. p]verywhere the nobles had been 
growing in wealth, through their control of all eoinuu^rce. 
As the only cajiitalists, they loaned money to tl'e ordinary 
farmers — on exorbitant interest, as high as twenty per cent a 
year — and took farm after farm on mortgage foreclosure, 
perhaps enslaving also the farmers and their families. Not 
content with so oppressing the masses below them, they used 
their increased power to dixide among themselves, step by step, 
the old royal authority. The Homeric monarchies became oli- 
garchies (p. 1)2, note). 
Class The next step was the rise of tyrants. In all (ireek cities 

struggles there had come to be a sharp division between classes. The 
wealthy nobles called themselves "the few" or "the good"; 



THE PEOPLE RULE AT ATHENS 



75 




The tyrants 



A Doric Capital. ■ — Fruin a photograph 
of a detail of the Parthenon (p. 107). 



and the class below them they called " the many " or " the bad. " 

"The many" clamored and complained; but they v/ere too 

ignorant and disunited as 

yet to defend themselves 

against the better-united 

"few" — until the umy was 

made easier for them by the 

''tyrants." 

Usually a tyrant was 
some noble, who, either 
from selfish ambition or 
from sympathy with the 
oppressed masses, turned 
against his own order to 
become a champion of the 
despised "many." When 
he had made himself mas- 
ter of the city by their 
aid, he tried to keep his 
power by surrounding himself with mercenaries and by ruining 
the nobles with taxes or even by exiling or murdering them. 

As the Greeks used the word, "tyrant" does not necessarily A step 

mean a bad or cruel ruler : it means merely a man who seized toward 

'^ democracy 

supreme rule by force. Many tyrants w^ere generous, far- 
sighted rulers, building useful public works, helping to develop 
trade, encouraging art and literature. But some, of course, 
were selfish and vicious ; and all arbitrary rule was hateful 
to the Greeks, — so that the oligarchs could usually persuade 
the people that the murder of a tyrant was a good deed. Ty- 
rants became common about 700 B.C. By 500, they had gone 
from every city in the Greek peninsula, though some w^ere found 
still in outlying districts. When the tyrants w^ere overthrown, 
the nobles had been so weakened that the people had a better 
chance. In the Ionian parts of Greece, the next step was com- 
monly a democracy. 

Now we will trace this change from "the rule of one" to 
"the rule of many" in Athens. 



76 THK GRKKKS BKFOUK ■)()() B.C. 

Kingship The heads of the "nohlc" fainihcs (the " wcll-horn ") were 

to^^oliearchy '" ^''^' hahit of iiu'ctiii^^ in council on the liill called the Arcoj)- 

cigus (the hill of Ares, <:;od of war). XCry early this Council 

of the Areopagus began to choose '' (irchous" ("rulers") from 

its own number to take ()\er the command in war and other 

important parts of the royal power. Gradually the "king" 

became only the city-priest. 

The oU- By mortgages, by ])urchase perhaps, by fraud and force 

f", ^,° . sometimes, the "well-born" had come also to own nearlv all 
the land and 

enslave the the land of Attica. Most of it was tilled for them by tenants 
P°°^ who had lost their own farms on mortgages and who now 

paid five sixths their crops for rent. A bad season, or ravages 
by hostile bands of invaders, would force these tenants to 
mortgage themselves, since they had no more land to mortgage, 
in order to get food and seed. Interest was crushing, — eighteen 
or twenty per cent a year. If the debtors failed to pay, the 
noble who held the mortgage could drag them off in chains 
and sell them for slaves. Nor did the common tribesman ha\ e 
any part in the government. Even the Assembly had shrunk 
into a gathering of noble families to decide upon peace and 
war and to choose archons. " The poor, " says Aristotle (a later 
Greek writer, in an account of this period), "were the very 
bondmen of the rich. . . . They were discontented with every 
feature of their lot . . . for . . . they had no share in any- 
thing." 
Attempts at This discontent of the masses, and tlie ([uarrels among fac- 

tyranny ead ^\^^^^ ^^f ^j^p nobles, gave opportunity to ambitious adventurers ; 
to conces- » *-> i k . ^ » 

sions and (()25 B.r.) one young noble seized the citadel of Athens 

with a band of troops, in order to make himself tyrant. The 
nobles rallied and crushed this attempt ; but the peril induced 
them to make two concessions to the ])oorer masses: (1) 
They admitted to the Assembly all men who would buy their 
own heavy ai'mor for war, and (2) they gaxc the j)e()])le written 
laws. 
Written Athenian law had been a matter of (ineirtit eustoui. It was 

^^^^ not written down, and much of it was known only to the nobles. 

All judges (archons) were nobles ; and they often abused their 



THE PEOPLE RULE AT ATHENS 77 

power in order to favor their own class in law suits. The people 
had long clamored for written laws. The nobles had stubbornly 
resisted this demand, but now they gave way. In 621 B.C. 
Draco, one of the archons, engraved the old laws of Athens 
on wooden blocks and set them up where all might see them. 

The result was to make men feel how^ harsh the old laws were. Rise of 
The "laws of Draco," it was said in later times, were "written ^^^^gj-g^p 
in blood rather than luJ:.'' The Athenians now demanded new 
laws ; and the renewed class struggles, together with the incom- 
petent rule of the nobles, brought the city to the verge of ruin 
in war with Little Megara. From this peril the city was 
finally saved by the courage and generalship of a certain Solon 
(one of the nobles, already- famous as a philosopher and poet) ; sole Archon 
and this brilliant success pointed to Solon as the possible savior (dictator) 
of Athens from her internal perils. He was known to sympa- 
thize w^ith the poor. In his poems he had long blamed the greed 
of the nobles and had pleaded for reconciliation between the 
warring classes. The Assembly now made him " sole Archon, " 
with supreme authority to remodel the gomrnment and the laws. 

Solon used this extraordinary powder first to reform economic Economic 
evils. ^ (1) He gave to all tenants the full ownership of the reforms 
lands w^hich they had been renting from the nobles (and which 
in most cases they or their fathers had lost earlier through 
debt) ; and he forbade the ownership in future of more than a 
moderate amount of land by any one man. (2) He freed all 
Athenians who were in slavery in Attica, and forbade the en- 
slaving of any Athenian tribesman in future. (3) He can- 
celed all debts, so as to give distracted Athens a fresh start; 
but he resisted a wild clamor for the division of all property. 
In later times, the people celebrated these acts by a yearly 
"Festival of the Shaking-off of Burdens." 

These reforms, it was soon seen, went deeper than merely to 
matters of property. (1) So many of the nobles lost their 
commanding wealth that before long they ceased to be a distinct 
class. Later distinctions in Athenian society were mainly 

1 Economic means "relating to property" ; it must not be confused with 
"economical." 



'8 



TIIK CKKKKS BKKOKK r,()() H.( 



Direct 

political 

reforms 



)forms 



Solon 
abdicates 



A true 
democrat 



Plain, 

Shore, and 
Mountain 



Pisistratus, 
tyrant. 
560 B C. 



bt'twc't'ii ricli and poor. (2) Many of the old tenant farmers 
could afi'ord to buy heavy armor (p. 76), and so could come also 
into the Assembly on a level with its old members. 

And, besides these indirect political changes, Solon next 
reformed the goxernnient (lircrtli/. (1) He created a Senate 
(chosen by lot, so that wealth should not control election) 
to replace the Areopagus as the (luiding part of the government. 
This body was to recommend measures to the Asseml)l\ . 

(2) He admitted to the Assembly all tribesmen, even the light- 
armed soldiers — though these last were not yet allowed to 
hold any offices. This enlarged Assembly, besides accepting or 
rejecting proposals of the new Council, could now discuss 
them ; and besides cleding archons, it could fry ihnn and pimish 
them for misgovernment. (3) The Areopagus was henceforth to 
consist of ex-archons, and became merely a sort of law court. 

Solon also made it the duty of every father to teach his sons 
a trade ; limited the wasteful extravagance at funerals — espe- 
cially the amount of wealth that might be buried with the 
dead ; and replaced Draco's bloody laws by milder punishments 
for offenses. In one thing he intensified an unhappy tendency 
of his age: he forbade women to appear in public gatherings. 

To establish all these ciianges kept Solon busy through the 
years 594 and 59;i B.C. Then, to the surprise of many, he 
resigned his power. He had really been an "elected tyrant," 
or a " dictator." His acts were so poj)u]ai- with the great mass of 
the people that he might easily have nuule himself tyrant for 
life. Bui for tin first fitur in history, a mail holding vast poircr 
rolunfonli/ loid it doirn in order that the jiroplc might govern 
themselves. 

Hut now a new strife of factions followed between the Plain 
(the larger land-owners), the Shore (merchants), and the Moun- 
tain (small farmers and shepherds) until. ;>() years later, Pisis- 
tratus, a near kinsman of Solon, made himself tyrant. His 
rule was mild and wise. He lixcd simply, like other citizens. 
He even a])])eare(l in a law court, to answer in a suit against 
him. And he always treated the aged Solon with deep respect, 



SOLON AND CLISTHENES 



79 



despite the latter's steady opposition. Indeed, Pisistratus 
governed through the forms of Solon's constitution,^ and enforced 
Solon's laws, taking care only to have his own friends elected 
to the chief offices. He was more like the "boss" of a great 
political "machine" than like a ''tyrant." 

Pisistratus encouraged commerce. Indeed he laid the basis 
for Athens' later trade leadership by seizing for her the mouth 






Temple of Theseus (so-called) at Athens, now believed to have been 
built about 440 b. c. as a temple to Athene. During the Middle Ages it 
was used as a Christian church; hence its perfect preservation. See 
page 71 and Plate XX. 



to the Black Sea. He also enlarged and beautified Athens; 
improved the roads, and built an aqueduct to bring a supply of 
water to the city from the hills ; and he drew to his court a 
brilliant circle of poets, painters, architects, and sculptors, from 
all Hellas. The first written edition of the Homeric poems is 
said to have been put together under his encouragement, and 
Thespis (p. 73) began Greek tragedy at the magnificent festivals 
now instituted to Dionysus (god of wine). 

1 Constitution, here and everywhere in early history, means not a written 
document, as with us, but the general usages of government in practice. 



80 



TIIK (HiEEKS BEFORE 5,)0 B.C. 



Hippias and 
Hipparchus 

Clisthenes 
expels the 
tyrant 



Cleruchs: 
a new kind 
of colony 



In .")L'7, Pisistratus was succccdrd l)y his unworthy sons 
Hippias and Hipparchus. Hipparchus was soon murdered, and 
hiter Hippias was driven out by a revolt led by Clisthenes, a 
noble whom lie had exiled. 

"The Athenians," says Aristotle, "now showed that men 
will fight more bra\ ely for themselves than for a master." The 
Euboeans and Thel)ans seized this moment of confusion to 
invade Attica from two sides at once ; but the Athenians routed 
them in a double l)attle, pursued into Euboea, stormed Chalcis 
there, and took for themselves its trade with Thrace (p. 70). 
Athens now began a new kind of colonization, sending four 
thousand citizens to possess the best land of Chalcis, and to 
serve as a garrison there. Thoic men retained full Aihcn'um 
citizni.shij), l)esides having full control over their own settle- 
ments in their own Asseniblies. They were known as cleruchs, 
or out-settliM's. In this way Athens found land for her surplus 
population, and fortified her influence al)road. 



I 



Internal 
quarrels 
due to two 

evils 



Reforms of 
Clisthenes 



Internal jealousies still weakened the city (1) ])etween 
Plain, Shore, and Mountain, and (2) between the citizens and 
a large body of resident "aliens," drawn to Athens since Solon's 
time by the growing trade of the city. These aliens were enter- 
prising and sometimes wealtliy ; still, though they lived in the 
city, iheii had no share in it. Xn alien could vote or hold office, 
or sue in a law court (except through the favor of some citizen), 
or fah'r part in a rehijious fisiind , or inarri/ an Afheniati, or iven 
own land in Attica. The city usually found it worth while to 
protect his property, in order to attract other strangers ; but he 
had no srrure rights. Xor eould his sou or anil later descendant 
acquire anif rights uiereli/ hi/ cimtinuincj to live in Athens. 

Clisthenes now came forward with j)ro])osals to remedy 
tlu'Se e\ils. The .\sscnil>ly a])])r(t\"ed liis plan and ga\e him 
authority to carry it out. .\eeordingly, he marked ofi' .Vttica 
into a hundred little di\ isions called deiues. Each citizen 
was riii-nllfd in one of thes(\ and his son after liim. Member- 
ship in a elan had always been tlie j)roof of citizenship. Now 
that proof was to be found in this deme-eUrollnient. Even the 



SPARTA AND MILITARISM 81. 

cleruchs (p. 80), aiid their descendants, kept their deme-enroll- 
ment, and, through that, their Athenian citizenship. 

The hundred demes were distributed among ten "tribes," or 
wards, so placed that men of the Shore and of the Mountain 
often found themselves in the same " tribe." The Assembly now 
voted by these "territorial" tribes, and so the old factions died 
out. Moreover, while Clisthenes was distributing citizens among 
these new geographical units, he seized the chance to enroll the 
non-citizens also in the denies and so brought them into the citizen 
body. (This applied only to those aliens then in Athens. In 
a few years another alien class grew up, with all the old disad- 
vantages. It was to be a long time before the world was to 
learn our device of easy "naturalization.") 

Clisthenes also gave the Assembly more power. It now a new 

elected ten ''generals'' yearlv, who took over most of the old demo^atic 

^ ^ ^ ' advance 

authority of the archons ; and it was made lawful for any voter 

to introduce new business. The " light-armed " citizens were still 

not eligible to office. Otherwise, Athens had become a democracy. 

Like Solon, Clisthenes might easily have made himself tyrant. 

But, with splendid faith, he chose to work, as Solon had done, 

to found government by the people. Clisthenes added also one 

more device to check faction. This was ostracism. Once a year Ostracism 

the Assembly was given a chance to vote by ballot (on pieces 

of pottery, "ostraka"), each one against any man whom he 

deemed dangerous to the state. If six thousand citizens took 

part in the vote, then that man against whom the largest number of 

the six thousand votes uiere cast had to go into exile. Even after 

all danger of a tyrant had ceased, ostracism was a convenient 

way for the people to relieve a leader whom they trusted from 

troublesome rivals or opponents. Such exile was felt to be 

perfectly honorable ; and when a man came back from it, he 

took at once his old place in the public regard. 

IV. THE GROWTH OF MILITARY POWER AT SPARTA 

One of the petty Dorian states in the Peloponnesus was Sparta. 
It had no sea coast ; but their devotion to war and certain 
habits of life (ascribed by legend to a great lawgiver Lycurgus) 



82 



thp: greeks before 500 b.c. 



Kings, 

Senate, 

Assembly 



Spartans 
and their 
subjects 



Spartan 
discipline 



opened to tlu- Spartan.^ a career of eoiKiuest. By 700 B.C. 
they were masters of all Laeoiiia ; soon after, they suhdned 
Messenia ; and then they hrou^dit all the rest of the Pelopon- 
nesus — except hostile Ar^^os — into a military league of which 
they were the head (the Prloponncsidn Ijdf/ur). 

In Sparta the royal power was di\ ided between ttro kings (the 
Spartan story explained tliis arrangement as due to the hirth 
of twin j)rinees), and real autliority rested in the Scnfitc of 
thirty elders. An A.s.scmhlj/, much like that of Homeric times, 
accepted or rejected proposals laid hefore it hy the Senate, 
hut could not amend or discuss them. Practically, Sparta 
was an oligarchy. 

Moreover, as a whole, the Spartans were a ruling class in the 
midst of subjects eight or ten times their number. Thry were 
a camp of some 9000 conquerors, with their families, living under 
arms in their unwalled city. They had taken for themselves 
the most fertile lands in Laconia ; l)ut fhci/ did no worh. Each 
Spartan's land was tilled for him by sla\es, called Hrlois. 

These Helots wen* the descendants of the ro?/7?/n/-dwellers 
at the time of the Spartan conquest. They numbered perhaps 
five to one Spartan ; and occasionally the Spartans carried out 
secret massacres of the more ambitious and intelligent among 
them. 

The inhabitants of the himdred small towns of Laconia were 
not slaves, but neither were they ])art of the Spartan state 
They tilled lands of their own, and carried on whatever other 
industry was found in Laconia. They kept their own customs, 
and managed the local affairs of their own towns — under the 
supervision of Spartan rul(Ts ; and they ])rovi(le(l troops for 
wSparta's army. 

Spartan mastery rested on a sleepless \ igilance and on a 
rigid and brutal discipline. The aim of S])arta was to train 
soldiers. 77/r fanilli/, as null a.s flit nian, hdoiujid almdutrly 
to the .state. Officers examined each child, at its birth, to decide 
whether it was fit to li\e. If it seemed weak or puny, it was 
exposed in the mountains to die. If it was strong and healthy, 
it was returned to its j):ir('nts for a few Ncars. Hut after a boy 



PLATE XVIII 





Above. — Modern Sparta from the north. In the background is seen the 
southern slope of Mt. Taygetus, through whose perilous passes Spartan 
armies marched to conquer their western neighbors, the Messenians. 

Below. — The Plain of the Eurotas, the site of ancient Sparta. The 
Spartans had no city walls and no important buildings, and so left little 
in the way of lasting relics of their life. 



SPARTA AND MILITARISM 83 

reached the age of seven, he never again slept under his mother's 
roof : he was taken from home, to be trained with other boys 
under pubhc officers. 

Boys were taught reading and a Uttle martial music, and 
were given training to strengthen the body and to develop 
self-control and obedience. On certain festival days, boys 
were whipped at the altars to test their endurance ; and Plu- 
tarch (a Greek writer of the second century a.d.) states that 
often they died under the lash rather than utter a cry. (This 
custom was much like the savage " sun-dance" of some American 
Indian tribes. Several other features of Spartan life seem to 
have been survivals of a barbarous period that the Spartans 
never wholly outgrew.) 

From twenty to thirty, the youth lived under arms in bar- 
racks. Years of constant military drill made it easy for the 
Spartans to adopt more complex tactics than were possible 
for their neighbors. They were trained in small regiments 
and companies, so as to maneuver readily at the word of com- 
mand. This made them superior in the field. They stood to 
the other Greeks as disciplined soldiery always stands to un- 
trained militia. At thirty the man was required to marry, in 
order to rear more soldiers ; but he must still eat in barracks, 
and live there most of the time. 

There was a kind of virtue, no doubt, in this training. The The good 
Spartans had the quiet dignity of born rulers. In contrast 
\Yith the noisy Greeks about them, their speech was brief and 
pithy ("laconic" speech). They used onh' iron money. And 
their plain living made them appear superior to the weak in-^ 
dulgences of other men. Spartan women, too, kept a freedom 
which unhappily was lost in other Greek cities. Girls were 
trained in gymnastics, much as boys were ; and the women 
were famous for beauty and health, and for public spirit and 
patriotism. 

Still, the value of the Spartans to the world lay in the fact 
that they made a (jarrison for the rest of Greece, and helped save 
something better than tliemselves. // the Greeks had all been 
Spartans, we coidd afford to omit the study of Greek history. 



84 



TiiK (;kkkks hi<:f()I{K rA)() bx\ 



" Hellas " 
and 
Hellenes 



Many small 
divisions 



A varied 
civilization 



Intercourse 
by the sea 



V. GlXXaiAPHV AM) ITS IXFLKENCE 
(Map study, hafterl on maps afler pp. 52 and 70) 

Note the three ^rcat (hvisioiis: Northrni Greece (Epirus and Thes- 
saly) ; Central Greece (a fj;n)up of eleven distriets, to the Isthmus of 
Corinth); and the Peloponnesus (the southern peninsula). Name the 
districts from Phocis south, and the chief cities in each. Which districts 
have no coast? Locate Delphi, Thermopylae, Tempe, Parnassus. 
Olympus, Olympia, Salamis, Ithaca, eight islands, three cities on tli* 
Asiatic side. Keep in mind that the islands shown are only a few of the 
many score that dot the Aegean. {The index usually tells on what map a 
geographical name can be found.) 

The Greeks culled themselves Hellenes (as they do stillV 
Hellas meant not European Greece alone, hut all the lands 
of the Hellenes. Still, the European peninsula remained the 
heart of Hellas. ()inittin<j: Epirus and Thessaly (which had 
little to do with (rreek liistory), the area of that European 
Greece is less than a fourth of that of New York. 

The islands and the patches of Greek settlements on dis- 
tant coasts made many disfinet geographieal divisions. .Even 
little Greece counted more than twenty such units, each shut 
off from the others by its strip of sea and its mountain walls. 
Some of these divisions were a})out as large as an American 
townsliip, and the large ones (exce])t Tliessaly and I^pirus) 
were only seven or eight times that size. 

The little states which grew up in these divisions differed 
widely from one another. Some became monarchies ; some, 
oligarchies; some, democracies. In some, the chief industry 
became trade ; in others, agriculture. In some, the people 
were slow and conservative ; in others, enterprising and pro- 
gressive. Oriental states were marked by great uniformitp ; 
Greek civilization was marked by a wholesome diversity. 

Mountain people, living apart, are usually rude and conservi^- 
ti\"«' ; l)Ut from such ft ndrnric.s Ililhis was saved hy the sea — which 
brought Athens as closely into touch with Miletus (in Asia) 
as with S])arta or ()lym]^ia. The very heart of Greece is broken 
into islands and j)r()in()nt()ries, so that it is Imrd to fi'nd a spot 
thirtv mih's distant from tlie sea. Sailors and traders come in 



t^i^^aaESOHHH 


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F^;';^|fVH| 


C^ - j1PbQV^^F^<^^H|i^^^^^^^H 


L ^"ftj^l^^^K 


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fidns^^H 


>v.»#-SiN^H 


R .3||^V 


<'mIvT^^^^^^I 


j^^sa 


I^HMl f ' M^^l 


r" l^^H 


"^^S^BK 


^^^EBfv ^^^^Hft^^ 








i^^^^^H 


.>/r ■' 3 




^^^H 




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j^^H 




ri 




^H 


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^^^H 


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1 



INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 85 

touch constantly with new manners and new ideas, and they ' Always 

are more likely to make progress than a purely agricultural ^®®^"s 

people. Exchanging commodities, they are ready to exchange thing " 

ideas also. The seafaring Hellenes were "always seeking some 

new thing." 

These early seekers found ''new thiiigs" within easy reach. Vicinity 

This "most European of all European lands" lay nearest of all . ?.. f. 

, , , , . civilizations 

Europe to the old civilizations of Asia and Egypt. Moreover, in the East 
it faced this civilized East rather than the barbarous West. 
On the other side, toward Italy, the coast of Greece is cliff or 
marsh, with only three or four good harbors. On the east, 
however, the whole line is broken by deep bays, from whose 
mouths chains of inviting islands lead on and on. In clear 
weather, the mariner may cross the Aegean without losing sight 
of land. 

Very important, too, was the appearance of the landscape. Influence of 
A great Oriental state spread over vast plains and was bounded geography 
by terrible immensities of desolate deserts. But, except in 
Thessaly, Greece contained no plains of consequence. It was 
a land of intermingled sea and mountain, with everything upon a 
moderate scale. There were no mountains so astounding as to 
awe the mind. There were no destructive earthquakes, or tre- 
mendous storms, or overwhelming floods. Oriental man had 
bowed in superstitious dread before the mysteries of nature, 
with little attempt to explain them. But in Greece, nature 
was not terrible ; and men began early to search into her secrets. 
Oriental submission to tradition and custom icas replaced by 
fearless inquiry and originality. In government. Oriental 
despotism gave way to Greek freedom. Greece had no parallel 
to the slavish Babylonian or Persian submissiveness before their 
kings, or to the Egyptian's before his priests. 

No doubt, too, the moderation and variety of the world 
about them had a part in producing the many-sided genius of 
the people and their lively but well-controlled imagination. 
And the varied beauty of hill and dale and blue, sunlit sea, the 
wonderfully clear, exhilarating air, and the soft splendor of 
the radiant sky helped to give them deep joy in mere living. 



the Medi- 
terranean 



tion like our 
own 



86 THE GRP^EKS BEFORE r,0() B.C. 

Al)()\(' all olluT peoples, i\w\ developed a Ion jOr harniotty and 
proportion. Moderation became their ideal virtue, and they 
used the same word for (jood and beautiful. 
A temperate Like most of Europe, Greece has a more temperate climate 
than the semi-tropical river valleys of Asia, and food crops 
demand more culiimtion. This called for greater exertion upon 
the part of man. Tlie beginnings of civilization were slower 
in Europe ; l)ut man was finally to count for more there than in 
Asia. 
Protected Finally, Greece was saved from Asiatic concjuest largely by its 

Asiatic position behind the })road moat of the Mediterranean. Persia 

conquest by subdued the Asiatic Greeks almost without a blow : against the 
European Greeks, we shall see, her supreme efforts failed. 
Most important of all, Greek civilization was essentially one 
A civiliza- witli our own. The remains of Egyptian or Babylonian sculp- 
ture and architecture arouse our admiration and interest as 
curiosities; but they are foreign to us. With a Greek temple 
or a Greek poem we fec^l at liome. It micjht hare been })uilt, 
or written, by an America)). Some of our most Ix'autiful build- 
ings are copied from Greek models. Our historians venerate 
the Greek Herodotus and Thucydides as their masters. Our 
children delight in the stories that the blind Homer chanted, and 
older students still find his poems a necessary part of literary 
culture. 

Exercise. — Make a table — in two parallel coliunns — of leading 
dates, approximate or fixed, in Oriental and in Greek history, down to 
600 B.C., when the two streams join. Can you justify the phravse 
"Most European of European lands" for Greece, by pointing out two 
or more respects in which important European characteristics are 
emphasized in Grc^ek urography? Name two features of Greek geog- 
raphy favorahle to any earlif civilization — as compared with Spain 
or France. Distinguish hetween Sparta and Lnroriin. Have you any 
huildings ill your city in which Greek columns arc used? Of which 
order, in each ca-sc? liefnrc the GriM'ks, the Persians built great roads; 
so did the Romans aflenrnrds ; you will hear no mention of roadbuild- 
ing among the Greeks. Why? Find in the library two or three .<;tories 
about Solon. The Ilidd open- with a story of a pestilence in the Greek 
camp ; the poet a^cribc> it to the arrows of the sun-god ApoUo. Can 



INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY 87 

you find an explanation for such a pestilence in this text ? Explain the 
following terms : constitution ; Helot ; tyrant ; Lycurgus ; Clisthenes ; 
Areopagus; archon; deme; clan; tribe; a "tribe of Clisthenes." 

(To explain a term is to make such statements concerning it as will 
at least prevent the term being confused with any other. Thus, if the 
term is Solon, it will not do to say, "A Greek lawgiver," or "A lawgiver 
of the sixth century b.c." The answer must at least say, "An Athenian 
lawgiver of about 600 b.c." ; and it ought to say, "An Athenian lawgiver 
and democratic reformer of about 600 b.c") 

For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, I, 40 ff. (especially Nos. 
41-43 on the Delphic Oracle ; 44, on Olympic Games — and see also Dr. 
Davis' novel, A Victor of Salamis ; 46, on founding a colon j' ; and the 
extracts from Plutarch's Life of Lycurgus). For modern authorities, 
Bury, 86-106, 116-117, 159-161, and especially 180-189 (on Solon) ; 
or Kimball-Bury's Studerds' Greece, chs. ii-iii. 




N Attic Vask T 



East and 
West join 
battle 



rilAPTKR IX 
GREEKS AND PERSIANS 

We have seen how tlu' Persians stretched their rule swiftly 
()\ er the territory of all j)reeeding empires, besides adding vast 
regions before unknown. By 500 B.C. they had advanced even 
into Europe across Thrace (map after p. 52) to the borders of 
Greece. The mighty world-empire next advanced confidently 
to add to its dominions the scattered groups of Greek cities, 
coveted for their ships and their trade. East and West joined 
battle. 

Asiatic Hellas, lacking the jirotcction of a sca-nioat, had l)cen 
conciuered by Cyrus the Persian some fifty years before, and 

now Carthage (a Phoeni- 
cian colony on the north 
coast of Africa) was incited 
by Persia to attack Magna 
Gallia ; so that to oppose 
the master of the worldl 
there was left only tli( 
little peninsula we call' 
Greece — and its strength 
was being wasted in in- 
ternal struggles, Athens at 
war witli Acgina and Tliel)es, Sj)arta with Argos, and many 
other cities torn by class strife. 

By 492, Darius the Persian had collected a mighty army at 
tlic Hellespont, with a fleet to sail along the coast carrying 

88 




Plan <>f Marathon. Ci. ma{), p. 94. 



I 



MARATHON, 490 B.C. 



89 



supplies. This fleet was wrecked by a storm at the rocky 
promontory of Mount Athos, and the land army had no choice 
but to return to Asia. But in the spring of 490 a second expe- 
dition was embarked upon a new majestic fleet, which proceeded 
directly across the Aegean. Receiving the submission of the 
islands on its course, this expedition reached Euboea, destroyed 
the city of Eretria there, and then landed its troops on the plain 



First 
Persian 
expedition, 
492 B.C., 
Mt. Athos 

Second 
expedition, 
490 B.C., 
Marathon 




Marathon To-day. — From a photograph. The camera stood a little above 
the Athenian camp in the Plan on the opposite page. That camp was in 
the first open space in the foreground, where the poplar trees are scattered. 
The land beyond the strip of water is the narrow peninsula running out 
from the " Marsh " in the Plan. 



of Marathon in Attica — especially to punish i\.thens, which had 
dared assist Ionian Greeks in a vain rebellion. 

From the rising ground where the hills of Mount Pentelicus 
meet the plain, ten thousand Athenians faced the Persian host. 
Sparta had promised help ; and at the first news of Persian 
approach, a swift runner (Phidippides) had raced the 160 miles 
of rugged hill country to implore haste. He reached Sparta on 
the second day ; but the dilatory Spartans waited a week, on 
the ground that an old law forbade them to set out on a military 



90 



WARS OK (JKKKKS AND PERSIANS 



Generalship 
of Miltiades 



Athens 
saved 



The meaning 
of Marathon 



expedition Ix'torc tlic full moon. Athens was left to save her- 
self — and our Western world — as best she could, against 
many times her numbers of the most famous soldiery of the world. 

Miltiades, the Ath(>nian commander, did not wait to be 
attacked, but himself took the otlcnsiw, moving his forces 
down the slope toward the Persian array. While yet an arrow's 
flight distant, the advancing Greeks l)r()ke into a run, so as to 
cover the rest of the ground before the Persian archers could 
get in their deadly work. Once at close quarters, the heavy 
weapons of the Greeks gave them overwhelming advantage 
Their dense array, charging with long, outstretched spears, by 
its sheer weight broke the light-armed Persian lines. The Per 
sians fought gallantly, as always ; but their darts and light 
scimitars made little impression upon the heavy bronze armor 
of the Greeks, while their linen tunics and wicker shields offered 
little defense against the thrust of the Greek spear. For a time, 
Persian ninnl)ers did force back the Greek center; but the two 
Greek wings (wher(> INIiltiades had nuissed his strength). ha\ 
ing routed the forces in front of them, wheeled upon the Persian 
center, crushing l)oth flanks at tlie same moment, and drove 
it in disorder to the slii])s. The Persians sailed away on a 
course that might lead to Athens, and so Miltiades hurried off 
Phidip{)ides to announce the victory to the city. Already ex 
haust<'d by tlu' battle, the runner put forth su])renie « fVort, 
raced the twenty-two miles of mountain road, shouted exidt 
antly to the eager, anxious crowds in tlu> city street, — "Ours the 
victory!" — and fell dead. (This famous run from the battle 
field to the city is the basis of the modern "Marathon" race, 
in which champion athletes of all coimtries compete. The 
student will like to read Browning's poem, Phidippidrs.) 

Meanwhile Miltiades was hurrying his wearied army, with- 
out rest, over the same road. Fortunately, the Persian fleet 
had to sail around a long promontory (map after p. o2), andj 
when it appeared off .\thens, the next morning, Miltiades had 
arrived. The Persians did not care to face again the men of] 
Marathon, an'd tin- same day tlu-y set sail for .\sia. 

Merely as a military e\ ent Marathon is an imimportaut skir- 



THE EXPEDITION OF XERXES 91 

mish ; but, in its results upon human welfare, it is among the 
few really "decisive" battles of the world. Whether Egyptian 
conquered Babylonian, or Babylonian conquered Egyptian, 
mattered little in the long run. But it did matter whether 
or not the huge, despotic East should crush the new free life 
out of the West. Marathon decided that the West should 
live. For the Athenians themselves, the victory began a new era. 
The sons of the men who, against such odds, conquered the 
hitherto unconquered Persians, could find no odds too crush- 
ing, no prize too dazzling, in the years to come. 

Soon after Marathon, Egypt rebelled against Persia. This The ten 
gave the Greeks ten years to get ready for the next Persian ^^^^ ^"*®^" 
attack, but the only city to make any good use of the time 
was Athens. The democracy there had divided into two 
political parties. The conservative party wished to follow es- Preparation 
tablished customs without further change. Its leader at this ^* Athens 
time was Aristides, surnamed "the Just." The radical party 
wished further reforms. It was led by Themistocles, less up- 
right than Aristides, but one of the most far-sighted statesmen 
in history. 

Themistocles saw that Persia could not attack Greece sue- Aristides 
cessfuUy without command of the sea. Moreover, huge as ^^^^^^ ^^^^' 
the Persian Empire was, it was mainly |in inland power; it 
could not so vastly outnumber the Greeks in ships as in men. 
Victory for the Greeks, then, was more likely on sea than on 
land. Accordingly he determined to make Athens a naval 
power. 

But, sea-farers though the Greeks were, up to this time they 
had not used ships much in war. The party of Aristides wished 
to hold to the old policy of fighting on land, and they had the 
glorious victory of Marathon to back their arguments. Finally, 
in 483, the two leaders agreed to let a vote of ostracism decide. 

The vote sent Aristides into banishment, and left Themis- Themisto- 
tocles free to carry out his new policy. Rich veins of silver cles^and the 
had recently been disco\'ered in the mines of Attica. These 
mines belonged to the city. It had been proposed to divide the 



92 



WARS OF (IRKKKS AXD PKRSIAXS 



Third Per- 
sian expe- 
dition, 
480 B C. 



Gloom 
Greece 



The three 
possible 
lines of 
defense 



Greek plans 



inronu' from them ninon^^ tlic citizens; hut Thcniistocles per- 
suaded liis eouutrynien to reject this tempting phni, and instead 
to huild a ^reat fleet. In tlie next three years Athens hecanie 
tlie t;reatest na\ al power in Helhis. 

Marathon liad proNcd tliat no Persian fleet hy itscH" could 
trans{)()rt enou^li troops; so the Persians now tried a^ain the 
plan of the first expedition (p. SS), hut upon a larger settle, 
both as to urmii and fleet. To guard apiinst another accident 
at Mt. Athos, a canal for shij)s was cut through the isthmus 
at the hack of that rocky headland, — a great engineering work 
that took three years. Supplies, too, were coUected at 
stations along the way ; the Hellespont was bridged witli chains 
of boats covered with planks ; ^ and at last, in the spring of 4S0, 
Xerxes, the new Persian king, k'd in person a mighty host of 
many nations into Europe. A fleet of twelve hundred ships 
accompanied the army. No wonder that the Delphic Oracle 
warned the Athenians to flee to. the ends of the earth. 

The Greeks had three lines of defense. The first was at the Vale 
of Tempe near Mount Olympus, where only a narrow pass 
opened into Thessaly. The second was at Thermopylae, where 
the mountains shut off northern from central Greece, except 
for a road only a few feet in width. The tliird was behind the 
Isthmus of Corinth. 

At a congress at (^orinth (where Sj)arta was chosen leader) 
the Peloponnesians wished selfishli/ to abandon the first two lines. 
They urged that all patriotic Greeks should retire at once within 
the Peloponnesus, and fortify the Isthmus by an imjM'cgna- 
ble wall. This ))ian was as foolish as it was selfish, (ireek 
trooj)s might ha\(> held the Isthmus against the Persian land 
arm\ ; l)ut the Pelopomiesus was readily oj)en to attack by sea, 
and the Persian Heet would hax'e found it easier here than at 
<'ither of the other lines of defense to land troops in the Gnu'k rear 
without lofifi lositifi toneh \rith its own arnn/. 

>^\\\\ Xerxes was allowed to enter (ireece without a blow — 
and was of course at once reinforced by excellent troops from 

' Road Hori)d()tu.s' .story of Xerxes' wrath when tlic fir^t bridge broke, and 
how he ordered the Hellespont to Ije flogged (Dav-is' RcaHings, I. No. 64). 



THERMOPYLAE AND PLATAEA 93 

deserted northern Greece. Then in a half-hearted way, Sparta Thermopy- 
decided to make a stand at Thermopylae. The pass there jj^'j^entral 
was only some twenty feet wide between the cliff and the sea, Greece 
and the only other path was one over the moimtain, equally 
easy to defend. Moreover, the long island of Euboea ap- 
proached the mainland just opposite the pass, so that the Greek 
fleet in the narrow strait could guard the land army against 
having troops landed in the rear. 

The Greek fleet at this place numbered 270 ships, of which 
the Athenians furnished half. The land defense had been left 
to the Peloponnesian League, and the Spartan king, Leonidas, 
held the pass with three hundred Spartans and a few thousand 
allies. The rtiavn force of Spartans was again left at home, on 
the ground of a religious festival. 

The Persians reached Thermopylae without a check. Battle 
was joined at once on land and sea, and raged for three days. 
Four hundred Persian ships were wrecked in a storm, and the 
rest were checked by the Greek fleet in a sternly contested con- 
flict at Artemisium. On land, Xerxes flung column after col- 
umn of chosen troops into the pass, to be beaten back each time 
in rout. But on the third night a Greek traitor guided a force 
of Persians over the mountain path, which the Spartans had 
left only slightly guarded. Leonidas then sent home his allies, 
but he and his three hundred remained to die in the pass which ' 
their country had given them to defend. They charged J03'- 
ously upon the Persian spears, and fell fighting, to a man. 

Sparta had shown no capacity to command in this great crisis. 
But at Thermopylae her citizens set an example of calm heroism 
that has stirred the world ever since. In later times the burial 
place of the Three Hundred was marked by this inscription, 
" Stranger, go tell at Sparta that we lie here in obedience to her 
command." 

Xerxes advanced on Athens and was joined by most of central Athens 
Greece. The Peloponnesians withdrew the army and fell back destroyed 
upon their first plan of building a wall across the Isthmus, 
and the admiral of the fleet (a Spartan, though Sparta furnished 
only 16 ships) was ben^ upon retiring to that position. By 




G, the Greek fleet at Salamis. PPI\ the IVrsiau fleet. A', the I'lirnii 
of Xerxes. (The "Long Walls" wore not built until lat<?r; p. 104.) 



battle .sliould be a sea battle, and tliat it .should be fought wliere 
the fleet then lay. No other spot so faxorabic for the sniallcr 
Greek fleet cotdd be found as tlie narrow strait bt>t\veen the 
Athenian shore and Salamis. If the (ireeks withdrew to Cor- 
inth, the fleet, too, would ])robal)ly break uj). Some ships 
would sail home to defend their own island cities; and others 
might join tlie Persians. Debate w:i\ed fieice in tlie all-night 



THERMOPYLAE AND PLATAEA 95 

council of the captains. The Corinthian admiral sneered that 
the allies need not regard a man who no longer represented a 
Greek city. Themistocles retorted that he represented two 
hundred ships/ and could make a city, or take one, where he 
chose ; and, by this threat he forced the allies to remain. 

To make reconsideration impossible, the wily Themistocles Battle of 
then made use of a strange stratagem. With pretended friend- *™^^ 
ship, he sent a secret message to Xerxes, telling him of the weak- 
ness and dissensions of the Greeks, and advising kirn to block 
up the straits to prevent their escape. Xerxes took this treacherous 
advice. There was now no choice for the Greeks but to fight. 
The battle of Salamis, the next day, lasted from dawn to night, 
but the Greek victory was complete. 

''A king sat on the rocky brow ^ 
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis ; 
And ships by thousands lay below, 
And men in nations, — all were his. 
He counted them at break of day, 
And when the sun set, where were they ? ' ' 

The Persian chances, however, were still good. Xerxes fled Mardonius 
at once to Asia with his shattered fleet, but he left three hundred *"^ ^^^^^ 
thousand chosen troops under his general Mardonius to winter 
in the plains of Thessaly. The Athenians began courageously 
to rebuild their city. Mardonius looked upon them as the 
soul of the Greek resistance, and early the next spring, he offered 
them an alliance, with many favors and with the complete restora- 
tion of their city at Persian expense. Terrified lest the x\thenians 
should accept so tempting an offer, Sparta sent profuse promises 
of help", begging them not to desert Hellas. But the Athenians 
had already sent back the Persian messenger : " Tell Mardonius 
that so long as the sun holds on his way in heaven, the Athe- 
nians will come to no terms with Xerxes." Of Sparta they 
now asked only that she take the field early enough so that 
Athens need not be again abandoned without a battle. 

^ The fleet had now grown to 378 ships in all. 

- A golden throne had been set up for Xerxes, that he might better view 
the battle (see map, p. 94). These lines are from Byron. 



1)G 



WARS OF CRKKKS A\D I'KUSIAXS 



Spartan 
delay or 
treachery 



Battle of 
Plataea 



Sparta made tlic promise, Imt did not keep it. Mardonius 
aj)pn)at'lu'd ra])idly. Tlic Spartans found another sacred fes- 
tival l)efore which it would not do to lea\(' tlieir homes; and 
the Athenians, in l)itter (hsappointment, a second time took 
refuge at Sahimis. Mardonius again l)urned Athens and hiid 
waste the farms over idl Attica. 

wSparta was still clinging to the stupid plan of defending only 
the Isthmus. Some of her keener allies, however, at last made 
her government see the uselessness of the wall at Corinth if the 
Athenians should he forced to join Persia with their fleet ; and 
finally Sparta took the field with 50,000 Peloponnesian troops. 
The Athenian forces and other reinforcements raised the total 
of the Greek army to ahout 100,000, and the final contest with 
Mardonius was fought near the little town of Plafarn. Spar- 
tan \alor and the Athenian skill and dash won a \ictory which 
became a massacre. Only 3000 of the invaders escaped to Asia, 
and no hostile Persian ever again set foot in European Greece. 



Exercises. — 1. Summarize the causes of the Persian Wars. 2. Do- 
vise and memorize a series of catch-words for rapid statement that shall 
suggest the outline of the story quickly. Thus : 

Firs/ expedition against European Greece, 492 B.C., through Thracp : 
Mount Afhos. Second expedition, acrosis the Aegean, two years later: 
capture of Eretria ; landing at Marathon ; excuses of Sparta ; Miltindi< 
and ItnUle of Marathon, /,!H) B.(\ (Let the student continue the series. 

For Furtuer Readinu;. — Speciallg suggcslcit : Davis' Rc(nlin{)s 
(I, Nos. ()2-73) gives the whole story of Xerxes' invasion as the Greek- 
themselves told it, in ahout 47 page-. Addi(ion(d : Co\s Greeks and 
Persians is an admirable little l)o()k. Many anecdotes are given in 
Plutarrh's Lives ("Themistocles" and " Aristides"). Bury is alwa> - 
good reading. 




Athenian Youth in the Great Religious Pkim i.>^i.;\ in Honor of 
Athene. From the Parthenon frieze (p. 107) ; now in the British Museum. 

CHAPTER X 
ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 478-431 B.C. 



(From the Persian War to the Peloponnesian War) 

After Plataea, the Athenians began once more to rebuild 
their temples and homes. Themistocles, however, persuaded 
them to leave even these in ashes and first surround the city 
with walls. Corinth, hoping basely to gain iVthens' old com- 
mercial prosperity for herself, urged Sparta to interfere ; and, 
to her shame, Sparta did demand that the Athenians give up 
the plan : such walls, she said, might prove an advantage to 
the Persians if they should again occupy Athens. 

Attica, which had been ravaged so recently, was in no condi- 
tion to resist a Peloponnesian army. So the wily Themistocles 
gained precious time by having himself sent to Sparta to discuss 
the subject. There he put off the matter from day to day, 
with skillful excuses ; and meanwhile the Athenians, neglect- 
ing all private matters, toiled at the walls with desperate haste 
— men, women, children, and slaves. No material was too 
precious. Inscribed tablets and fragments of sacred temples 
and even monuments from the burial grounds were seized for 

97 



Athens 
builds walls 



98 



THE (IliKKKS— ATIIKXIAX LIOADKRSII I T 



the work. Then, wlicn incsscn^'crs inl'orincd Thciiii.stoclos 
thiit the walls were hi^Hi enough to \)v (Icfeiided, he came before 
tlie Laeediieinoiiians ' and told them hluntly that henceforward 
"tliey nuist deal with the Athenians as with men who knew 
quite well what was best for their own and the eonnnon good." 
Themistoeles went on to establish the naval and commer- 
cial supremacy of Athens by two great measures: he secured 
a vote from the Assembly ordering that twenty new ships should 




i';i i\> OK i»ih Wall 



li.. I'M 



Piraeus 
fortified 



be added each year to the war fleet ; and lie provided the city 
with a port secure against either storm or hinnan attack. 

Athens lay some miles from the shore. Until a few years 
before, her only port had been an oj)en and unsafe rcKidstead, 
— the Phalerum ; but during his archonship in 493, Themis- 
toeles had given the city a magnificent har])or, by improving 
the inclosed bay of the Pirdcua, at great expense. Xow he 
persuaded the peoj)le to forflfy this port on tlie land side with 
a massive wall of solid masonry, clamped with iron, sixteen 



1 LaredaoiDonia is the name Riven to the whole Spartan territory. See 
map after p. 52. Head in Tljueydifh's (see j). 109) t])e story of how Tliemis- 
tocles provided for his own safety at Sparta. 



i 



THE PIRAEUS 99 

feet broad and thirty feet high, so that old men and boys might 
easily defend it against any enemy. The Athenians now had 
two ivalled cities, each four or five miles in circuit, and only 
four miles apart ; and the alien merchants, who dwelt at the 
Athenian ports, and who had fled at the Persian invasion^ 
— many of them to Corinth, — came thronging back. 

The war with Persia was still going on, but only on the Ionian Victory at 
coast. In the early spring of 479, a fleet had crossed the Aegean ^^^ ^ 
to assist Samos in revolt against Persia. A Spartan commanded 
the expedition, but three fifths of the ships were Athenian. 
On the very day of Plataea these forces defeated a great Persian 
army at Mycalc, on the coast of Asia Minor, and seized and 
burned the three hundred Persian ships. No Persian fleet 
showed itself again in the Aegean for 71 early a hundred years. 

This victory of Mycale was a signal for the cities of Ionia to Sparta 
revolt against Persia. The Spartans, however, shrank from YJ?^^*^u* 
the task of defending Hellenes so far away, and jyroposed in- leader 
stead to remove the lonians to European Greece. The lonians ^sainst 
refused to leave their homes, and the Athenians in the fleet 
declared that Sparta should not so destroy " Athenian colonies. " 
The Spartans seized the excuse to sail home, leaving the Athenians 
to protect the lonians as best they could. The Athenians gal- 
lantly undertook the task, and began at once to expel the Per- 
sian garrisons from the islands of the Aegean. 

The allies now organized the Confederacy of Delos, so called Confederacy 
because its seat of government and its treasury were to.be at the ° ® **^ 
island of Delos. Here an annual congress of deputies from the 
different cities of the League was to meet. Each city had one 
vote — like the American States under the old Articles of Con- 
federation. Athens was the "president" of the League, and 
her generals commanded the fleet. In return, she furnished 
nearl\' half of all the ships and men, — far more than her proper 
share. 

The purpose of the League was to free the Aegean completely 
from the Persians, and to keep them from ever coming back. 
The allies meant to make the union perpetual. Lumps of iron 



1(K) 



rili: (iUKKKS — ATHENIAN l.KADKKSHIl 



Growth of 
the League 



were thrown into the sea wlieii tlie oatli of union was taken, as 
a symbol tliat the oath sliould l)e l)in(ling until the iron should 
float. The Ltdfjuc W(hs composed maiuli/ of Ionian cities, intcr- 
csird in rommcnr. It was a natural rival of Sparta's Dorian 
inland Iraguv. 

The Lea<iue of Delos did its work well. Its chief military 
hero was the Athenian Cimon, son of Miltiades. Year after 
year, under his command, the allied fleet reduced one Persian 
garrison after another, until the whole region of the Aegean 
was free. The League came to include nearly all the islands 
of the Aegean and the cities of the northern and eastern coasts. 
The cities on the shores of the Black Sea, too, were added ; and, 
even more than before, the rich trade of that region streamed 
through the Hellespont to the Piraeus. 

Souu> inenihers of tlie League soon began to shirk. As 
soon as the })ressing danger was over, many cities chose to pay 
money, instead of furnishing ships and men. Athens, on the 
other hand, eagerly accepted both burdens and responsibili- 
ties. The fleet became almost wholly Athenian ; and the 
congress at Delos became of little consequence. 

Then, here and there, cities began to refuse even the payment 
of money. This, of course, was secession. Such cities said 
that Persia was no longer dangerous, and that the need of the 
League was over. But tlie Athenian fleet, ])atr()lling the Aegean, 
was all that kept the Persians from reappearing; and Athens, 
with good reason, held the allies by force to their j)romises. 
In 4<i7, wlicn the union was oidy ten yrars old, Naxos, one 
of the most powerful islands, refused to pay its contributions. 
Athens at once attacked Naxos, and, after a stern struggle, 
brought it to submission. But thr e(>n(iuercd state was not 
allowed to return into the union. It lost its vote in the congress, 
and hreamr a mere snhject of Athrns. 

From tJMH- to time, otin-i- un-mbcrs of tiu' League atttinpted 
secession, ami nut a like fate, .\thens took away their tieets. 
leveled their walls, atid made them pay a tribute. Lsually a 
subject citN was left to manage its internal go\ (-rnnient in its 
own way ; but it could no longer haxc alliances with other 



THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 



101 



cities, and sometimes its citadel was held by an Athenian gar- Athens i 
rison. The confederacy of equal states became an emjnre, with ' .J^^*^* 
Athens for its "tyrant city." The meetings of the congress 
ceased altogether. Athens removed the treasury from Delos, 
and began to use the funds and resources of the union for her 
own glory. (By 450 B.C. Lesbos, Chios, and Samos were the 



Acharnian Gate 




7 Eleusinium 

8 Council House 
y I'holos 
10 Temple of Furies 

STADIA S || J Templeof Asclepius 11 Temple of Ares 

^] ' 3 1^ Mcnument of 1 - So-called Prison 
-ly lysi cntea ufSocraiea 



Map of Athens, with some structures of the Roman period. — The term 
"Stoa," which appears so often in this map, means "porch" or portico. 
These porticoes were inclosed by columns, and their fronts along the 
Agora formed a succession of colonnades. Only a few of the famous build- 
ings can be shown in a map like this. The "Agora" was the great public 
square, or open market place, surrounded by shops and porticoes. It was 
the busiest spot in Athens, the center of the commercial and social life of 
the city, where men met their friends for business or for pleasure. 



only states of the League which had not become " subject states." 
Athens, however, had other independent allies that had never be- 
longed to the Delian Confederacy — like Plataea and Corcyra in 
Greece, Rhegium in Italy, and Segesta in Sicily.) 



102 THE GREEKS — ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP 



And her 
work 



Atlicns at least continiU'<l faithfully to do tlio work for w liicli 
the iiiiioM liad hccFi created ; and on tlie whole, despite 
the stroll*,' teiideney to city iiide-pendenee, the sul)jeet cities 
seem to have heeii well content. In nearly all of them the 
ruhn^' power hecame an Assembly like that at Athens; and 
the hulk of the people looked gratefully to Athens for protection 
against the oligarchs. 



ExEKCisE. — If time permits, let students report to the class stories 
for this period about Themistocles, Aristides, and Cimon — from Plu- 
tarch. Bury, or other library material. The best short account of the 
period is chapter 1 of Cox's Athenian Empire. 




Bay of Salamis. 



^jSk 


L..-, : 


ffflffll.^i*^^ 


i^'W 




[i.4gg7orr^!a:?^?r- ■ ■ -^-^^^^B 


M 


^W!$ 


[-i^HI '^S 


.^ 


t< • ' - 


riPo.'. '"=^' «aJHHiH^^^HK^=il? 


H[^^HHi|r:_ ««K^M 




-^^JJJp^'W 'y.'.ir!.^^l"'p|^^^ 


^ wwim 




SE23^^*^ 





The Acropolis, as "restored" bj- Lambert- 



CHAPTER XI 
THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE IN PEACE 

The history of Athens is for us the history of Greece. — Holm. 

In the fifth century B.C. the Athenian Empire was probably 
the mightiest state in the world. The cities of the Empire 
counted some three millions of people. The number seems small 
to us ; but the population of the world was much smaller then 
than now, and these were all wealthy, progressive communities. 
Attica itself contained 300,000 people. Nearly half of these 
were slaves or aliens.^ This left some 175,000 citizens, of whom 
35,000 were men fit for soldiers. Outside Attica, there were 
75,000 more citizens, who had been sent out as colonists to gar- 
rison outlying parts of the empire. 

The Empire was rich. Athens drew a yearly income of 
about four hundred talents ($440,000 in our values) from her 
Thracian mines and from the port dues and the taxes on alien 
merchants. The tribute from the subject cities amounted 
to $660,000. Athens used this money, too, as her own. If 
she had any excuse, it is that this tribute was much less than 
it would have cost the cities merely to defend themselves against 

1 A new class of alien residents had grown up since Clisthenes took those 
of his day into the citizen body. 

103 



104 



THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE 



pirates, had Athenian ])r()tection heen removed, and that the 
Asiatic Greeks paid only one sixth (is much as thei/ had formerhj 
paid Persia. 

Athens had eonipleted her fortifications hy ImildinL,^ the 
Long Walls to the Piraeus (map, p. 94). These walls were 
30 feet high and 12 feet thick — so that a chariot-road ran 
along the top. They made Athens absolutely safe from siege, so 
long as she could keep her supremacy on the sea ; and they 
added to the city a large open space where the country people 
might take refuge if Attica were invaded. 

For tliirty-three years (461-429 B.C.) the leading statesman 
of Athens was Pericles. Soon after Plataea, the poorest citizens 
had ])ecome eligible to office ; and under Pericles the govern- 
ment continued to grow more and more democratic. Four 
steps in this development are worth noting. 

1. When Themistocles carried his great measures, like 
improving tlie Piraeus and building a fleet, he was an Archon. 
But when Pericles guided Athenian policy, lie was a General 
(p. 81). The Generals had become the "administration." 
It was they who usually proposed the levy of troops, the build- 
ing of ships, the raising of money, the making of peace or war. 
Any other citizen ntif/ht j)r()p()se these things ; but the Assembly 
was most likely to listen to those whom it iiad chosen to plan for 
them. True, any ])r()minent speaker, trusted by the people, 
was known as a " demagogue, " or " leader of the people " ; and, 
though out of office, a "leader of the i)e()ple" exercised great 
influence. To make things work smoothly, it was desirable 
that the Board of Generals should contain the most trusted 
" leader of the people" for the time being. 

Pericles was recognized "demagogue" for many years, and 
was fifteen times elected "president of the Board of Generals." 
Almost always he was the spokesman of that Board before 
the Assembly. He belonged to the ancient nobility of Athens, 
but to families that had always taken the side of the people. 
His mother was a niece of ("listhencs. His supremacy rested 



UNDER PERICLES 105 

in no way upon flattering arts. His proud* reserve verged on 
haughtiness, and he was rarely seen in public. His stately 
gravity and unruffled calm were styled Olympian by his admirers 
— who added that, like Zeus, he could on occasion overbear 
opposition by the majestic thunder of his oratory. The long 
and steady confidence given him honors the people of Athens 
no less than it honors Pericles himself. His noblest praise 
is that which he claimed for himself upon his deathbed, — that, 
with all his authority, and despite the bitterness of party strife, 
"no Athenian has had to put on mourning because of me." 

2. The Assembly met on the Pnyx, a sloping hill whose side The 
formed a kind of natural theater. There were forty regular Assembly 
meetings each year, and many special meetings. Thus a pa- 
triotic citizen was called upon to give at least one day a week 

to the state in this matter of political meetings alone. The As- 
semhly had made great gains in power. All public officials had 
become its obedient servants. Even the Generals were its 
creatures, and might be "recalled" by it any day. No act of 
government was too small or too great for it to deal with. 

3. "Juries" of citizens had been introduced by Solon, and juries 
their importance became fully developed under Pericles. Six 
thousand citizens were chosen each year for this duty, — 
mostly from the older men past the age for active work. One 
thousand of these were held in reserve. The others were divided 

into ten jury courts of five hundred each. Such a jury was 
"both judge and jury": it decided each case by a majority 
vote, and there was no appeal from its verdict. On the whole the 
system worked well. In particular, any citizen of a subject 
city, wronged by an Athenian officer, was sure of redress before 
these courts, — which was one reason why Athenian officials 
in subject cities behaved well. 

4. Since these courts tried political offenders, it was essential Payment for 

that thev should not fall whollv into the hands of the rich. To *" P"^"^ 

service: a 

prevent this, Pericles wisely introduced a small payment for democratic 
jury duty (about enough to buy one man's food). Afterward ^^^^^^ 
payment was extended to other political services — which was as 



100 



TIIK ATllKXIAX KMIMKK 



pnjjXM" ;m(l necessary as payment ni' eoii^ressinen and jnd^es 
witli us. 

Al)()ut 10,000 Athenians were en^^a^cd at all times in ])ul)lic 
work. Scattered over the empire were some 700 leadin^^ ollicials 
to represent the im])erial city, with many assistants. In the 
city itself, there were 700 city officials (overseers of weights 
and measures, harhor ins))ectors, and so on), 500 Councilmen, 
and the 0000 jurymen. Always about a fourth of the grown-up 
citizens were in the ei\ il service,^ and each Aihrnian could count 
upon serving his citi/ at aonic time in almost rirri/ office. 

Such a system could not have worked without a high average 
of intelligence in the people. It did work well. Indeed it was 
far the irisest and the best that had been seoi in any great state 
up to that time. 

(ireat as was the service of Hellas to the world in free govern- 
ment, still her chief glory lies in her art and her literatinr ; 
and it was in the Athens of Pericles that these forms of Greek 
life developed most fidly. Pericles made Athens the most 
beautiful city in the world, so that, ever since, lier mere ruins 
have enthralled the admiration of men. Greek art was just 
reaching j)erfection; and everywhere in Atliens, under the 
charge of tlie greatest artists of this greatest artistic age, aros(^ 
temples, colonnades, porticoes, inimitable to this day. 

Tlie center of this architectural splendor was the ancient 
citadel, the A(ro|)olis. That massive rock now became the 
" holy hill." -No longer needed as a fortification, it was crowned 
with white marbl<\ and (le\-ot<Ml to religion and art. On the 
west (the only side at all accessible) was built a stately stair- 
way of sixty marble steps, leading to a series of noble colon- 
nades and ])ortieoes (the rropi/laea) of surpassing beauty. 
From these the \isitor emerged u|)on the lexcled top of the 
Acro|)olis, to find himself surrounded by temi)les and statues, 
an\ one of which alont- might make tin- fame of the proudest 



• Civil service is a term u.sed in contra.st to military service. Our post- 
masters are anions the civil servants of the Unit<?d States, as a city engineer 
or a fireman is in the city civil service. 



INTELLECT AND ART 107 

modern city. Just in front of the entrance stood the colossal 
bronze statue of Athene the Champion, whose broad spear point, 
glittering in the sun, was the first sign of the city to the mari- 
ner far out at sea. On the right of the entrance, and a little 
to the west, was the temple of the Wingless Victory; and near 
the center of the open space rose the larger structures of the 
Erechtheum and the Parthenon (Plate XXII and "Plan" facing 
page 103). 

The Parthenon ("maiden's chamber") was the temple of The 
the virgin goddess Athene. It remains peerless in loveli- Parthenon 
ness among the buildings of the world. It was in the Doric 
style and of no great size, — only some 100 feet by 250, while 
the marble pillars supporting its low pediment rose only 34 
feet from their base of three receding steps. The effect was 
due, not to the sublimity and grandeur of vast masses, but 
to the perfection of proportion, to exquisite beauty of line, 
and to the delicacy and profusion of ornament. 

In the pediments were carved fifty life-size or colossal statues ; 
and, within the colonnade, around the entire wall of the inner 
building, ran a broad band of relief sculptures, some four feet 
high, containing nearly 500 figures. This "frieze" represented 
an Athenian procession carrying offerings to the patron goddess 
Athene. All these sculptures, large or small, were finished 
with perfect skill, even in those parts so placed that no observer 
could see them " without going on the roof or opening a wall." 

This ornamentation was cared for by Phidias and his pupils. Greek 
Phidias still ranks as the greatest of sculptors. Much of the sculpture 
work on the Acropolis he merely planned, but the great statues 
of Athene were his special work. Besides the bronze statue, 
there was, ivithin the temple, an even more glorious one in gold 
and ivory, smaller than the other, but still five or six times larger 
than life. (When the Turks held Greece, thej^ used the Parthe- 
non as a powder house. In 1687 an enemy's cannon ball ex- 
ploded the powder, and left the temple in ruins, much as we 
see it to-day. About the year 1800, Lord Elgin secured most 
of the sculptures from the ruin for the British Museum, where 
they are known now as the Elgin Marbles.) 



108 



Till-: ATIIKXIAX KMIMRH 



Aeschylus, 
Sophocles. 
Euripides 



The drama In tlic a^o of l^•^i(•l('s, the chief form of poetry hecaine the 

fnnjic <h-<nn(i — the liiulicst (l<-\ clopiiK'iit of (ircck literature. 
'V\\c drama l>i(/(in in the s()ii<;s and dances of a chorus in honor 
of Dionysus, ^od of wine, at tlie spring- festival of flowers and 
at tlie autunm \ inta*i,-e festixal. The leader of the chorus 

came at length to recite stories, 
ix'tween the songs. Thespis 
at Athens, in the age of Pisis- 
tratus, had (le\ clojx-d this 
leader into an actor, — ayart 
from the chorus and carrying 
on dialogue with it. Now 
Aeschi/lus added another actor, 
and liis younger rival, Sopho- 
cles, a third. All the action 
had to he such as could have 
taken place in one day, and 
w itliout change of scene. Aes- 
chylus, wSophocles, ;ind their 
successor, Euri})ide.s, are the 
three greatest Greek drama- 
tists. Together they produced 
some two hundred tragedies, 
of which thirty-one survive. 

Comedy also grew out of the 
worship of the wine god, — not 
from the great religious festi- 
\als. liowexcr, hut from the 
i-nde \illage merrymakings. 
" Attic com«'d\ " ke})t traces of 
tiiis ru(h' origin in occasional 
coarseness; and it was sometimes misused, to ahuse men like 
Pericles and Socrates. Still, its great master, .lr/.s7o/>/;^;;?r.»f, for 
his wit and genius, nuist always remain one of tlie l»right names 
in hterature. 
The theater l''\'ery Greek city liad its " tlieater" — a semicirctdar arrange- 
ment of rising seats, often cut into a iiillside, with a small stage 



Aristoph- 
anes 




I 



SoPHOCLKs. — A !» )rtr;iit statvio. now 
in the Later:in MiisiMini at Rome. 



PLATE XXI 





I 



Ahovk- I 111: A ri;if <.i I )i()\\ si 



Ariii.Ns 'l'(t-l)A^ 



Hki-ow. — Thk Sta(;k ok thk Tin- \thh. slmwini' ilu- s.iil|, 
alxjut it. — From the front- 



.1 li^Mirc 



INTELLECT AND ART 109 

at the open side of the circle for the actors. There was no 
inclosed building, except sometimes a few rooms for the actors, 
and there was none of the gorgeous stage scenery which has 
become a chief feature of our theaters. Neither did the Greek 
theater run every night. Performances took place at only 
two periods in the year — at the spring and autumn festivals 
to Dionysus — for about a week each season, and in the daytime. 

The great Theater of Dionysus, in Athens, was on the south- 
east slope of the Acropolis — the rising seats, ^ cut in a semicircle 
into the rocky bluff, looking forth, beyond the stage, to the hills 
of southern Attica and over the blue waters of the Aegean. 
It could seat almost the whole free male population. 

Pericles secured from the public treasury the admission fee 
to the Theater for each citizen who chose to ask for it. The 
Greek stage was the modern pulpit and press in one, and this 
free admission was for religious and intellectual training, rather 
than for amusement. 

The art of public speech was studied zealously by all who Oratory 
hoped to take part in public affairs. Among no other people 
has oratory been so important and so effective. For almost 
two hundred years, from Themistocles to Demosthenes (p. 134), 
great statesmen swayed the Athenian state by their sonorous 
and thrilling eloquence ; and the citizens, day after day, packed 
the Pnyx to hang breathless for hours upon the persuasive 
lips of their leaders. 

Prose literature now began, with history as its leading form. History 

The three great historians of the time are Herodotiis, Thucydides, 

and Xenophon. For charm in story-telling they have never 

been excelled. Herodotus was a native of Halicarnassus in 

Asia Minor. He traveled widely, lived long at Athens as the 

friend of Pericles, and finally in Italy completed his great History 

of the Persian Wars, with an introduction covering the world's 

history up to that event. Thucydides, an Athenian general, 

wrote the history of the Peloponnesian War (p. 124 ff.) in 

1 The stone seats were not carved out of the hill until somewhat later. 
During the age of Pericles, the men of Athens sat all over the hillside, on 
the ground or on stools which they brought Mdtii them. 



110 



UK A'l^llKXIAX K.MIMKK 



wliich lie took part. Xciiophon also was an Athenian. He 
completed tlie story of the Peloponnesian War, and ga\-e us, 
with other works, the Atuifxhsis, an account of the expedition 
of the Ten Thousand Greeks through the Persian Empire in 
401 B.C. (p. i;^()). 



Compared 
with the 
earlier 
philosophy 



Philosophy The age of Pericles saw also a raj)id devekjpnient in ])liilos- 

ophy, — and this movement, too, had Athens for its most 
important home. Anaxagora.s of Ionia, the friend of Pericles, 
taught that the ruling princij)le in the universe was Mind : 
"In the l)eginning all things were chaos; then came Intelli- 
gence, and set all in order." He also tried to explain comets 
and other strange natural phenomena, which had been looked 
upon as miraculous, and he amazed men of his time most of all 
by asserting that the sun was a red-hot mass probably as large 
as tlie Peloponnesus. 

Tlie pliilosoi)h(M-s of the sixth century (p. 73) had tried to 
answer tlie (juestion, — How did the universe come to be? The 
])hil()soi)hers of the age of Pericles asked mainly, — How does 
man Iniow about the universe? That is, ihrii tried to explain 
the leorlcitKj of the hutiuni ntind. These early attempts at explana- 
tion were not xcry satisfactory; so next came the Sophists, 
to declare all such ex])lanations beyond the power of the hmnan 
iiiind. Man, they hrld, cannot reach the trutli itself, but must 
l)e content to know only (ipjx'dnmces. 

Socrates 'iheu came Sorrdtes to com])lete the circle of ancient philosoj)hy. 

Like the Sophists, he aliaiidoncd the attemj)t to understand 
the m(iteri(d unixcrse, and ridiculed gently the attcmj)te(l explana- 
tions of his friend, Anaxagoras. Hut he really dllVered widely 
from the Soj)hists. He sought knowledge about himself and 
his duties. He took for his motto, " Kiioir thj/self,'' and consid- 
ered philoso])hy to consist in rii/ht thiukiuq upon humon conduct. 
"^rrne \\is(l(»iii. he taught, is to l:noie what is good and to do what 
is right ; and he tried to make his followers see the ditf(Tence 
between justice and injustice, temperance and intemi)erance, 
virtue ami \ ice. 

Socrates was a poor man, an artisan who car\'ed little images 



SOCRATES 111 

of the gods for a living; and he constantly vexed his wife, The " So- 
Xanthippe, by neglecting his trade, to talk in the market place. ^^^^^ .. 
He wore no sandals, and dressed meanly. His large bald head 
and ugly face, with its thick lips and flat nose, made him good 
sport for the comic poets. His practice was to entrap unwary 
antagonists into public conversation by asking innocent-look- 
ing questions, and then, by the inconsistencies of their answers, 
to show how shallow their opinions were. This proceeding 
afforded huge merriment to the crowd of 3'ouths who followed 
the bare-footed philosopher, and it roused up bitter enemies 
among his victims. But his beauty of soul, his devotion to 
knowledge, and his largeness of spirit make him the greatest 
name in Greek history. 

When seventy years old (399 B.C.) Socrates was accused of Socrates' 
impiety and of corrupting the youth, and was condemned to ^^^^^ 
death. For thirty days he remained in jail, conversing daily 
in his usual manner with groups of friends who visited him. 
Two of his disciples (Plato and Xenophon) have given us ac- 
counts of these talks. On the last day, the theme was immor- 
tality. Some of the friends fear that death may be an endless 
sleep, or that the soul, on leaving the body, may "issue forth 
like smoke . . . and vanish into nothingness." But Socrates 
comforts and consoles them, — convincing them, by a long 
day's argument, that the soul is immortal, and picturing the 
lofty delight he anticipates in questioning the heroes and sages 
of olden times when he meets them soon in the abode of the blest. 
Then, just as the fatal hour arrives, one of the company (Crito) 
asks, "In what way would you have us bury you?" Socrates 
rejoins : 

" 'In any way you like : only you must first get hold of me, and take 
care that I do not walk away from you.' Then he turned to us, and 
added, with a smile : ' I cannot make Crito l)elieve that / am the same 
Socrates who has been talking with you. He fancies that I am another 
Socrates whom he will soon see a dead body — and he asks, How shall 
he bury me? I have spoken many words to show that / shall leave 
you and go to the joys of the blessed. ... Be of good cheer, then, my 
dear Crito, and say that you are burying my body only — and do with 
that what is usual, or as you think best. ' " 



Ill 



Till-: (iKKKKS — ACJK (JF I'KKICLKS 



Extent of 
Athenian 
culture 



Pericles' 
glorification 
of Athens 



Friciuls of Socrates liad inado arran^ciiicnts for his oscajx' 
from prison Ix'forc tlie day set for his excfution ; ])ut he stead- 
fastly refused to <ro. To tiuMr j)l('a(iin^s he answered only hy 
a playful discourse to the effect tliat " Death is no evil ; hut for 
Socrates to ' i)lay truant' and injure the laws of his country, 
would he an e\ il." And so he drank the fatal licnilock with a 
gentle jest upon his lii)s. His condemnation is the greatest 
hlot upon the intelligence of the Athenian democracy. 

In the fifth century B.C. Athens gave hirth to more great 
men of the first rank, it has been said, than the whole world has 
ever produced in any other ecpial period of time, and to that 
same center there swarmed other famous men from less-favored 
parts of Hellas. Despite the condemnation of Socrates, no 
other city in the world afforded such freedom of thought, and 
nowhere else was ability, in art or literature, so appreciated. 
The names that haxc been mentioned give l)ut a faint impres- 
sion of the splendid throngs of brilliant poets, artists, philoso- 
phcTs, and orators, who jostled one another in the streets of 
the })eautiful city tliat clustered round the temple-crowned 
Acropolis. During the second year of the Peloponnesian War 
(p. 124), Pericles delivered a great oration in honor of the Athe- 
nian dead, — a splendid glorification of the .\thenian spirit 

" We are lovers of the beautiful, i/et simple in our tastes: and we culti- 
vate the mind ivithout loss of tnanliness. Wealth wo employ, not for 
talk and ostentation, but when there is a real use for it. To avow 
poverty with us is no disgrace; the true disgrace is in doing nothing 
to avoid it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the state hecausc^ 
he tak(\s care of his own household; and even those of us who are en- 
gaged in husincss have a very fair idea of politics. We regard a man 
who takes rw interest in public, affairs, not as a harmless, but as a mis- 
chievous character Vnd we shall asstiredly not he without wit- 
nesses. There are mighty monuments of oin- power which will make 
us the wonder of this and of succeediii^; ag(>s. . . . I'Or we hav(^ eoni- 
|>elle(l every land and every sea to open a i)atli for our valor, and have 
everywhere planted eternal memorials of our friendship and of our 
emnity {thrns is the school of Ifcllos." 

T'hrce liniitatiiuis in this noble culture nnist be noted : 

1. It rested on slaNcrw The main business of the citizen 



i 



In Greek 
culture 



WEAK POINTS IN THEIR CULTURE 113 

was government and war. Trades and commerce were left Limitations 
largely to the free non-citizen class, and unskilled hand labor 
was performed mainly by slaves. As a rule, it is true, this 
slavery was not harsh. The slaves were frequently Greeks, of 
the same speech and culture as their masters ; but in some ways, 
this made their lot all the harder to bear. There was always 
the possibility of cruelty ; and in the mines, even in Attica, 
the slaves were killed off brutally by merciless hardships. 

2. Greek culture was for males only. It is not likely that 
the wife of Phidias or of Thucydides could read. The women 
of the working classes, especially in the country, necessarily 
mixed somewhat with men in their work. But among the 
well-to-do, women had lost the freedom of the simple and rude 
society of Homer's time, without gaining much in return. Ex- 
cept at Sparta (p. 83) they appeared rarely on the streets, and, 
even at home, passed a secluded life in separate women's apart- 
ments. (The rule is merely emphasized by its one exception. 
No account of the Athens of Pericles should omit mention of 
Aspasia. She was a native of Miletus, and had come to Athens 
as an adventuress. There she won the love of Pericles. Since 
she was not an Athenian citizen he could not marry her ; but, 
until his death, she lived with him in all respects as his wife — 
a union not grievously offensive to Greek ideas. The dazzling 
wit and beauty of Aspasia made her home the focus of the 
intellectual life of Athens. Anaxagoras, Socrates, Phidias, 
Herodotus, delighted in her conversation ; and Pericles consulted 
her on the most important public matters. But she is the only 
woman who need be named in Greek history after the time of 
Sappho.) 

3. With all their intellectual power, the Greeks of Pericles' 
day had not thought of finding out the secrets of nature by 
experiment. They had only such knowledge of the world 
about them as they had chanced upon, or such as they could 
attain by observatio7i of nature as she showed herself to them. 
To ask questions, and make nature answer them, by systematic 
experiment, is a method of reaching knowledge which belongs, 
in any marked degree, only to recent times. But, before the 



lU Till-: CUKKKS - AdI-: OK rKKICLKS 

Greeks, men had readied alxmt all the mastery ()\cr nature that 
was possible without that method. Tlie Greek mind achicM d 
won(h'i-s in iitcratui-e and art and |)hil()S(»|)hy ; Inif if did liftlr 
to (idnutci iitdirs poircr onr unfit lu. 

To make the (ireek woi'id at all real to us, we must think 
of <'\en the hest houses witliout plumhin^' — or drains of any 
sort; heds without sheets or springs; rooms witliont fire; 
tra\-elin*i- without hrid^^-es and without e\-en a stagecoach; 
shoes without stockings; clothes witliont })nttons, or e\-en a 
liook and eye. The Grt>ek had to tell time without a watch, 
and to cross seas without steamshi])s or wireless telegraphy 
or e\-en a com])ass. He was civilized without heing what we 
should call " comfortable." 

Perhaps all the more, he felt keenly the beauty of sky and iiill 
and temple and statue and the human form, l^ut in one respect 
this lack of control over nature was exceedingly serious. With- 
out modern scientific knowledge, and modern machinery, it 
has ne\er been })ossible for man to ])roduce wealth fast enough 
so that nuuui could take sulficient leisure for refined and graceful 
living. There nuts too Utile wenlth to go round. The cixilization 
of the few rested neeessarUji u])on slax'cry. This third limita- 
tion was the cause of the first. 

The mora! side of (ireel: culture /V///.v short of the intetJicfuol 
and morals .m/,. Their religion had little to do with conduct toward men. 
Their good sense anrl clear thinking had freed their religion 
from the grossest features of Oriental worshij); l)Ut their moral 
ideas are to be sought mainly in their philosoj)hy and literature, 
rather than in their stories about the gods. They acce])te(l 
frankly the search for j)l<'asnre as natural and proper. Self- 
sacrifice bad little place in their ideal ; but they did deeply 
admire the beauty of self-control and moderation. No society 
ever j)rodu('ed so many great men, but many societies ha\p 
produced better men. 

At the same time, a few (ireek teachers gi\e us some of the 
noblest morality of th«' woi'ld. as the following brief (piotations 
show : 



Religion 



RELIGION AND MORALS 



115 



a. From the Odyssey. — "Verily the blessed gods love not fro ward 
deeds, but reverence justice and righteous acts." 

h. From Aeschylus. — "Justice shines in smoke-grimed houses and 
holds in regard the life that is righteous ; she leaves with averted eyes 
the gold-bespangled palace which is unclean, and goes to the abode that 
is holy. 

c. Antigone, the heroine of a play by Sophocles, had knowingly in- 
curred the penalty of death by disobeying an unrighteous comm.and of 
a wicked king. She justified her deed proudly, — 

" Nor did I deem thy edicts strong enough 
That thou, a mortal man, should'st overpass 
The unwritten laws of God that know no change." 

d. A Prayer of Socrates (from Plato's Phaedrus). — "Beloved Pan, 
and all ye other gods who haunt this place, give me beauty in the in- 
ward soul ; and may the outward and inward man be at one. May I 
reckon the wise to be the wealthy, and may I have such a quantity of 
gold as none but the temperate can carry." 




Greek Girls at Play — from a vase- 
painting. 



( IIAITKK XII 

EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE AGE OF PERICLES 

The home (irci-k houses, vvvn those* of t\\v rich, were siiiiph'. Tlic j)oor 

c-ould not atVoid more; and the rich man thou^dit liis house of 
little account. It was merely a place to keep his women folk 
and young children and some other valuable property, and to 
sleep in. His real life was i)assed outside. 

The ])0()r man's house was a one-story mud hut; and even a 
"well-to-do" house was merely a wooden frame, covered with 
sun-dried clay. Houses were huilt flush witli the street, and on 
a level with it, — without even sidewalk or steps between. 
The door, too, usually opened out — so that passers-l)y were 
li;d)le to l)umps, unless they kept well to the middle of the 
narrow street. On the opposite page is given the ground plan of 
one of the few private houses of the fifth century which has been 
unearthed in a state to be traced out. Tliis house was at 
Delos ; and it was something of a mansion, for tlie times. 

The street door opened into a small vestibule (A), about six feet by 
ten. This led to a square "hall" (D, D, D, D), which wa.s the central 
feature of every Greek house of iniportanee. In the center of the hall 
there was a "court," n])en to the ski/, and surrounded by a row of columns 
ten feet high. The columns were to uphold their side of the hall ceiling, 
— since the hall had no wall ne.xt the court. The court was |)aved with 
a beautiful mosaic. (Commonly, however, all floors in private houses 
were made of concrete, or merely of beaten earth.) 

From the, hall there opened six rooms more. The largest (//) was 
the dining room and kitchen, with a small recess for the chimney in one 
corner. The other rooms were store rooms, or sleeping rooms. .\ny 
overflow of guests could be taken care of by couches in the hall. This 
whole floor was for males <mlv. There was an upper story for the* 
women, reached by ;i steep stairway in the lower hall, and projecting, 
I)crhaps, part way over the street. If a rich man's hoase had only one 
story, there was at the rear a .second half for the women, connected 
with the men's half by a door in the partition wall. Sometimes there 
was a small walled garden at the l)a<k. 

lib 



EVERYDAY LIFE 



117 



City houses were crowded close together, with small chance 
for windows on the sides. Sometimes narrow slits in the wall 
opened on the street. Otherwise, except for the one street 
door, the front was a blank wall. The Greeks did not have 
glass panes for windows. The houses were dark ; and most of 
the dim light came from openings on the central court. 

In cold damp weather (of which, happily, there was not much), Discomfort 
the house was exceedingly uncomfortable. The kitchen had 
a chimney ; but for other rooms the only artificial heat came 




Plan of a Fifth-Century Delos House. — After Gardiner and Jevons. 



from small fires of wood or charcoal in braziers, — such as are 
still carried from room to room, on occasion, in Greece or Italy 
or Spain. The choking fumes which filled the room were not 
much more desirable than the cold, which they did little to drive 
away. Sometimes a large open fire in the court gave warmth 
to the hall. At night, earthenware lamps, on shelves or brackets, 
furnished light. There were no bathrooms, and no sanitary 
conveniences. 

The residence streets were narrow and irregular, — hardly 
more than crooked, dark alleys. They had no pavements ; 
they were littered with all the filth and refuse from the houses. 
Splendid as were the public portions of Athens, the residence 
quarters were much like a squalid Oriental city of to-day. 



Street 
squalor 



11<S 



TlIK (IREKKS— ACK OF PKINCLKS 



l*iil)lic- loimtains, siii)i)li((l 1)\ iKiui'ducts, furnislu'd pure drink- 
iii<i wjitcr; hut tluM'c \v;is no ])rovisi()n for sewers or for flush- 
ing- \\\v streets. Wealthy men were he^innin<i; to l)uild more 
eonifortahly on tlie liills ne;ii- the eit\ ; l)nt war ke))t tin's prac- 
tice from heconiin^ eonnnon. 
The Greek In the Oriental lands a man was at liberty to have as many 
amily wives in his household as he chose to support. Poor men usually 

were content with one ; hut, among the rich, polygamy was 
the rule. A Greek had only one wife. Imperfect as Greek family 
life was, the adoption of '* monogamy " was a great step forward. 




Greek Wome 



"rom :i bowl p;iiiitiiiK. 



Marriage was arranged hy ])arents. Tlie young people as a 
rule liad ne\ cr seen eaeli other, (iirls were married very young 
— hy hfteen or earher. Not till the e\ening before her marriage 
did the girl put away her doll, — offering it then solenmly on 
the shrine of the maiden goddess Artemis. Among the wealthy 
classes, the wives spent the rest of their days indoors — ex- 
cept on some ran^ festival occasions. The model wife learned to 
oversee the household (l);i\is' Ixi(idln</.s', 1, No. 99); but in 
most homes this duty was left to traiiu'd slaves, and the wife 
dawdled away the day listlessly at her toilet or in vacant idle- 
ness, nnich as in an l\ast<'rn harem to-day. The \ase ])ictures 
show her connnonly with a miiror. Inwholesome living led to 



EVERYDAY LIFE 



119 



excessive use of red and white paint, and other cosmetics, for 
the complexion. 

Law and pubHc opinion allowed the father to "expose" a 
new-born child to die. This practice was common among the 
poor, especially for girl babies. (Boys w^ould offer sacrifices, 
in time, at the father's tomb, a7id they could fight for the city.) 
Till the age of seven, boys and girls lived together in the women 's 
apartments. Then the boy began his school life. 



Most of the hand labor w^as busied in tilling the soil. The Occupations 
farmer manured his land skillfully. Some districts, like Cor- 
inth and Attica, could not furnish food enough for their popu- 
lations from their own soil. Athens imported grain from other 
parts of Hellas and from Thrace and Egypt. This grain was 
paid for, in the long run, by the export of her factories. (Davis' 
Readings, I, No. 76, gives a list of twenty-five handicrafts 
used in beautifying the Acropolis.) In these factories, the 
place taken now by machinery was taken then, in large part, 
by slaves. The owner of a factory did not commonly own all 
the slaves employed in it. Any master of a skilled slave might 
" rent" him out to a factory. 

The villages of Attica, outside Athens, w^ere mainly occupied Work of the 
by farmers and farm laborers. Commerce was centered in the ^°°^ 
Piraeus. In xAthens, the poorer classes worked at their trades 
or in their shops from sunrise to sunset — with a holiday about 
one day in three. Their pay was small, because of the compe- 
tition of slave labor ; but they needed little pay to give them 
most of the comforts of the rich — except constant leisure. 
The Greek artisan worked deliberately and took a noble pride in his Delight in 
work. The stone masons who chiseled out the fluted columns ^°^^ 
of the Parthenon felt themselves fellow workmen w^th Phidias. 

A rich Athenian citizen owned lands outside the city, w^orked The rich 
by slaves and managed by some trusted steward. Probably 
he also had money invested in trading vessels, though he left 
their management to agents in the Piraeus. Some revenue he 
drew from money at interest with the bankers ; and he drew 
large sums, too, from the "rent" of slaves to the factories. 



120 TTTK GREEKS — AC K OF PERICLES 

Daily life lAkv tlio poorer citizt'iis, the rich man rose with the sun. A 

of a Greek , , i • i- i i i i i • 

fentleman sla\(' })()ure(l water over his tace and hands, or perhaps over his 

naked l)o(l\ , from a basin. (Poor men like Socrates l)athed at 

the pul)hc fountains.) He tlien hroke his fast on a cuj) of wine 

and a (h*y crust of bread. Afterward, perhaps he ro(k' into tlie 

country, to \ isit one of his farms tliere, or for a day's hunting. 

If, instead, he remained witliin tlie city, he left his house 
at once, stopping, probably, at a barl)er's to have his beard 
and finger nails attended to, as well as to gather the latest 
news from the barber's talk. The latter half of the morning 
would hnd him strolling tlu-ough the shaded arcades about the 
market place, among throngs of his fellows, stopping for conver- 
sation with friends — with whom, sometimes, he sat on the 
benches interspersed among the colonnades. At such times^ 
he was always followed by one or two handsome slave boys, 
to run errands. At midday, he returned home for a light 
lunch. In the afternoon, if a student, he took to his rolls of 
papyrus ; if a statesman, perhaps he prepared his speech for 
the next meeting of the Assembly : sometimes, he visited the 
public gaming houses. Then, after exercise in a gymnasium, 
he bathed at a public bathing house, hot, cold, or vapor bath, 
as his taste decided ; and here again he held conversation 
with friends, while resting, or while the slave attendants rubbed 
him with oil and ointment. 

Toward sunset, lie once more \isited his home, unless he was 
to dine out. If the evening meal was to be, for a rare occasion, 
at home and without guests, he ate with his family, — his wife 
siitiiuf at the foot of the couch where he reclined ; and soon after- 
ward he went to bed. More conunonly, he entertained guests — 
whom he had invited to dinner as he met them at the market 
])lace in the morning — or he was himself a guest elsewhere. 

Such days were not allowed to Ixeome monotonous at Athens. 
For several years of his life, the citizen was certain to be busied 
most of the time in the ser\ ice of the state (p. 10()). At other 
times, the meetings of the .\ssembly and the religious festivals 
and the theater took at least one day out of every three. 

The excniiig banciuet played a large j)art in (ireek life. 



EVERYDAY LIFE 121 

As guests arrived, they took their places in pairs, on couches, The banquet 
which were arranged around the room, each man rechning on 
his left arm. Slaves removed the sandals or shoes, wash- 
ing the dust from the feet, and passed bowls of water for the 
hands. They then brought in low three-legged tables, one 




The Wrestlers. — A copy of a famous statue by Myron, a younger con- 
temporary of Phidias. Myron excelled in depicting action in marble, 
where his Greek predecessors for the most part had represented their 
subjects in repose. Cf. Plate after 184. 

before each couch, on which they afterward placed course after 
course of food. 

The meals were simple. Food was cut into small pieces in 
the kitchen. No forks or knives were used at table. Men 
ate w ith a spoon, or, more commonly, with the fingers ; and 



12: 



TIIK UKKEKS — A(;K OF PKHICLES 



at the close, slaves once more passed howls for washinj^ the 
hands. When the eating was over, tlie real business of the 
evening began — with the win(\ This was mixed witli water, 
a;id drunkenness was not common ; but tlie drinking lasted 
late, with serious or playful talk, and singing antl story-telling, 




School Scenes. — A Bowl Painting. — Instruments of instruction, mostly 
musical, hang on the walls. In the first half, one instructor is correcting 
the exercise of a boy who stands before him. Another is showing how 
to use the flute. The seated figures, with staffs, are "pedagogues." 



and witli forfeits for those wiio did not perform well any i)art 
assigned them by tlic " master of the feast " (one of their number 
chosen by the others when the wine a])peared). Often the 
host had tnusicians come in. with jugglers and dancing 
girls. 

Respectable women ncxcr ajjixarcd on these occasions. 



EVERYDAY LIFE 123 

Only on marriage festivals, or some special family celebration, 
did the women of a family meet male guests at all. 

Education at Athens was in marked contrast with Spartan Education 
education. It aimed to train harmoniously the intellect, the 
sense of beauty, the moral nature, and the body. At school, the 
boy was constantly under the eye not only of the teacher, but 
also of a trusted servant of his own family, called a pedagogue. ^ 
The chief subjects for study were Homer and music. Homer, 
it has well been said, was to the Greek as Bible, Shakespeare, 
and Robinson Crusoe. The boy learned to write on papyrus 
with ink. But papyrus was costly, and the elementary exer- 
cises were carried on with a sharp instrument on tablets coated 
with wax. 

Physical training began with the child and continued through 
old age. No Greek youth would pass a day without devot- 
ing some hours to developing his body and to overcoming 
any physical defect or awkwardness that he might have. All 
classes of citizens, except those bound by necessity to the work- 
shop, met for exercise. The result was a perfection of physical 
power and beauty never attained so universally by any other 
people. 

Imaginative Exercises. — 1. A captive Persian's letter to a friend 
after Plataea. 2. A dialogue between Socrates and Xanthippe. 
3. An address by a Messenian to his fellows in their revolt against 
Sparta. 4. Extracts from a diary of Pericles. 5. A day at the Olj^mpic 
games (choose some particular date). 

Read Davis' A Day in Old Athens and Nos. 76-80, 88-97, from his 
Readings. Two very valuable and readable little books upon the topics 
of the last two chapters are Grant's Greece in the Age of Pericles and 
Abbott's Pericles (especially the opening chapters). 

J The word meant "boy-leader." Its use for "teacher" is later. 




An Atheniax Warship {Trinuw). 



CHAPTER XIII 



THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR AND THE FALL OF HELLAS 



The Pelo- 
ponnesian 
War. 431- 
404 B.C. 



Athens stood for progress; Sparta liated ehange. The cities 
of the Athenian Empire were Ionian, demoeratie, and eoniuier- 
eial ; most of the cities of the Peloponnesian League were Dorian, 
ruled by land-holding aristocracies. These difi'erences gave 
rise to mutual distrust and dislike. Still, if noiie of the Pelopon- 
nesian cities had had interests on the sea, the two powers might 
not have crossed each other's paths. But Corinth and INIegara 
(allies of Sparta) were trading cities, and, with the growtli of 
Athenian commerce, they feared ruin for themselves. So, in 
431 B.C. Corinth succeeded in persuading Sparta to declare 
war on Athens. The struggle lasted twenty-seven years and 
ruined tlic promise of Greece. 

The Pcloponncsldn Lcagur could muslcr (i hundred Ihoutiiwd 
hoplifrs, against whom in that day no army in the world could 
stand ; hut it could not kccj) many men in tlie field longer than 
a few weeks. .Ithcn.s had only some twenty-six thousand liop- 
lites at her command, and half of these were needed for distant 
garrison duty. Hut she Ixid (i uarii rrni more unmatched on the 
sea than the Peloponnesian arnn/ w(i,s on land. Her walls were 
impregnal)le. The islands of Kuhoea and Salamis, and the open 
spaces within the Long Walls, she tliought. could recei\(» her 

' From an Athcniiin relief. Only the highest " b:uik " of rowers i.s vi.sible, 
but the oars of the two other banks are shown. (They projected through 
I>ortholes, and the rowers were protected from arrows by the .sides of the 
ship.) There were 174 oarsmen and al)out 20 other sailors t/> each ship, for 
helmsmen, lookouts, overseers of the oarsmen, and so on. And a warship 
never carried less than t^n fully armed soldiers. The Athenians usually 
s<Mit from 20 U) 25 in each ship. The ships were alx)Ut 120 feet long, and 
less than 20 feet wide. 

124 



WAR BETWEEN SPARTA AND ATHENS 125 

country people with their flocks and herds. Grain ships from 
the Black Sea coasts could enter the Piraeus as usual, however 
the Spartans might hold the open country of Attica. Athens 
could support her population for a time from her annual revenues 
and from the immense surplus of 6000 talents ($6,600,000) in 
her treasury. 

The Spartans marched each year into Attica with over- 
whelming force, and remained there for some weeks, laying waste 
the crops, burning the villages, and cutting down the olive 
groves, up to the very w^alls of Athens. At first, with frenzied 
rage, the Athenians clamored to march out against the invader ; 
but Pericles strained his great authority to prevent such a 
disaster, and finally he convinced the people that they must 
bear this insult and ruin with patience. Meantime, an Athenian 
fleet was always sent to ravage the coasts and harbors of Pelo- 
ponnesm and to conquer various exposed allies of Sparta. 
Each party could inflict considerable daiijage, hut neither could 
strike a vital bloiv. 

But a tragic disaster fell upon Athens, which no one in that The Plague 
day could have foreseen. A plague had been ravaging western 
Asia, and in the second year of the war it reached the Aegean. 
In Athens it was peculiarly deadly. The people of all Attica, 
crowded into the one city, were living under unusual and un- 
wholesome conditions ; and the pestilence returned there each 
summer for several years. It slew more than a fourth of the popu- 
lation, paralyzed industry, and shattered the proud and joyous 
self -trust of the Athenian people. 

The causes of the pestilence are told by Thucydides : — '' When 
the country people of Attica arrived in Athens, a few had homes of 
their own, or found friends to take them in. But far the greater 
number had to find a place to Hve on some vacant spot or in the 
templesof the gods and chapels of the heroes. . . . Many also camped 
down in the towers of the walls, or wherever else they could ; for 
the city proved too small to hold them." And, adds Thucydides with 
grim irony, "While these country folk were dividing the spaces be- 
tween the Long Walls and settling there," the Generals and Council 
were "paying great attention to mustering a fleet for ravaging the 
Peloponnesian coasts," 



126 



TllK (iKKKKS 



Death of 
Pericles 



Athenian 
disaster in 
Sicily 



Sparta 
betrays the 
Asiatic 
Greeks to 
Persia 



The deadliest l)l()\v of the phi^nie was the stiikin^^ dov ii of 

Pericles in the third year of the war. Never had the Athenians 

so needetl his ealni and fearless judgment. He was succeeded 

by a new class of leaders, 

— men of the ])eoj)le, like 

Clcoft the tanner, — men 

of strong will and much 

force, hut rude, untrained, 

and ready to surrender 

their own convictions in 

order to win the favor 

of the crowd. Such men 

led Athens into nuiny 

l)lun(lers and crimes. 

Over against them stood 

only Alclhiddcs, a l)ri]- 

liant, un])rincipled ad- 

\'entur(>r, and a group of 

incapable aristocrats, led 

T, TT n n . bv Nicia.s-, a good but 

The Hermes of Praxiteles. — Praxit- • , > r> 

ole.s rivaled his master. Phidias; and stupid man. 
this statue, though so sadly mutilated, t„ iio ,, ^, ..iv..,. .. 
remains one of the most famous sur- 
viving masterpieces of Greek art. wliole generation had 

grown up in war, the 

superstition and mismanagement of Nieias caused tlu* loss 

(in an expedition against Syracuse) of two hundred perfectly 

cfjuipped Atlienian ships and ov<'r forty thousand nu-n — among 

them eleven thousand of the flower of the Ather.ian hoplites. 

Even after this crushing disaster Athens refused i)t*ace that 

should take away her emi)ire, and the war lasted nine years 

more — ])art of the time w ith Athens as suprcMue in th<^ Aegt>an 

as ever. 

Hut in \\1, immediately after the destruction of th(> Athenian 

army in Sicily, Persian satraps a])])eared again upon the Aegean 

coast. Sj)arta at once bouglit tlie aid of their gold by Ix'traying 

the freedom of the Asiatic Greeks, — to whom th<' Athenian 

name had been a shield for sev^ty years. Persian funds then 




SPARTAN SUPREMACY, 404-371 B.C. 127 

built fleet after fleet for Sparta ; and slowly Athens was ex- 
hausted, despite some brilliant victories. In 405, her last fleet Fall of 
was surprised and captured at Aegospotami (Goat Rivers), -^t^^^s 
Apparently the officers had been plotting for an oligarchic 
revolution ; and the sailors had been discouraged and demoral- 
ized, even if they were not actually betrayed by their com- 
manders. Lysander, the Spartan commander, in cold blood 
put to death the four thousand Athenian citizens among the 
captives. 

This slaughter marks the end. Athens still held out, despair- 
ing but stubborn, until starved into submission by a terrible 
siege. Corinth and Thebes wished to raze it from the earth, 
but Sparta had no mind ]to do away with so useful a check upon 
those cities. She compelled Athens to renounce all claims to 
empire, to give up all alliances, to surrender all her ships but 
twelve. The Long Walls and the defenses of the Piraeus were 
demolished, to the music of Peloponnesian flutes ; and Hellas 
was declared free ! It remained oiily to see to whai foreign master 
Greece should fall. 

From the Persian Wars to the fall of Athens there had been 
seventy-five glorious years. From the fall of Athens to the fall 
of Hellas there were about as many years more — mainly of 
shame and of profitless wars. 

For thirty-seven years, Sparta was supreme. Every- Spartan su- 
where she set up oligarchic governments. The cities of the P^^^^^^y- 
old Athenian Empire found that they had exchanged a mild, B.C. 
wise rule for a coarse and stupid despotism. Their old 
tribute was doubled ; their self-government was taken away ; 
bloodshed and confusion ran riot in their streets. Usually the 
management of a city was given to an aristocratic board of 
ten men, called a decarchy (''rule of ten"), commonly with 
a Spartan garrison in the citadel to guard against demo- 
cratic risings. The garrisons plundered at will, and grew 
rich from extortion and bribes; and the decarchies were 
slavishly subservient to their Spartan masters, while they 
wreaked upon their fellow-citizens a long pent-up aristocratic 



128 



THE GREEKS 



Spartan 
decay 



The Thirty 
at Athens 



vengeance, in confiscation, outrage, expulsion, assassination, 
and massacre. 

In Sparta itself luxury and corruption replaced the old sim- 
plicity. Property was gathered into the hands of a few, while 
many Spartans grew too jioor to support themselves in their 

barrack life. These 
poorer men ceased to 
he looked upon as 
citizens. They were 
not permitted to vote 
in the Assembly, and 
were known as " In- 
feriors." The 10,000 
citizens, of the Per- 
sian War period, 
shrank to 2000. 

For a time even 
Athens remained a 
victim to Spartan tyr- 
anny, like any petty 
Ionian city. During 
tlie war, the old oli- 
garchic party, so long 
helpless, had organ- 
ized secret "clubs** 
to conspire against 
the democratic gov- 
enunent. After tlie surrender, in 404, Lysander appointt^l a 
coMiMiittee of thirty from these clul)S to undo the reforms of 
Pericles and Clisthenes and Solon, and "to reestablish the 
constitution of the fathers." These men (a triple decarchy) 
were known as "the Thirty Tyrants." They called in a 
Spartan garrison, to whom they ga\-e tlie fortress of the Acro})- 
olis ; they disarmed the citizens and began a bloody and greedy 
reign of terror. Rich democrats and alien merchants were put 
to dcatli or drixcn into exile, in order tliat their property 
might be eonfisc-ated. (Davis' Ixrddimjs, 1, No. 100.) 




Copy of a Satyu by i-'kaxitklks. 
Hawthorne's "Marl)le Faun. 



I 



SPARTAN SUPREMACY. 404-371 B.C. 129 

Despite the orders of Sparta, such exiles and other democratic 
fugitives were sheltered by Thebes. That city felt aggrieved 
that her services in the Peloponnesian War had received no 
reward from Sparta, and now she would have been glad to see 
Athejis more powerful again. A year later, a daring band of 
these Athenian exiles marched secretly from Thebes by night 
and seized the Piraeus. The aliens of the harbor rose in their 




Present State of Theater of Apollo at Delphi. — Compare with cuts 
facing p. 109. This view is taken from the ruins of the Temple. 

support, and they defeated the Spartan garrison and the forces 
of the Thirty. The restored democracy showed itself generous 
as well as moderate. A few of the most guilty of the Thirty 
were punished, but for all others a general amnesty was declared. 
This moderation contrasted so favorably with the cut-throat 
rule of the recent Athenian experiments at oligarchy, that 
Athens was undisturbed in future by revolution. 

Meantime, important events were taking place in the East. March of 
In 401, the weakness of the Persian Empire was shown strik- jhoug^nd 
ingly. Cyrus the Younger j brother of. the king Artaxerxes, en- 



130 



Tifi<: (;i{KKKs 



New 

Persian 

wars 



Theban 
revolution 



(loavort'd to seize tlie Persian throne. While a satrap in Asia 
Minor, Cyrus had furnished Sparta the money to keep her fleet 
tojjether before the })attle of Goat Rivers ; and now, through 
Sparta's favor, lie was able to enlist ten thousand Greeks in 
his army. 

Cyrus penetrated to the heart of the Persian Empire ; })ut in 
a great battk^ near Babylon, lie was killed, and his Asiatie troops 
routed. The Ten Thousand Greeks, however, proved uneoncpier- 
able by the Persian half million. By treaehery the Greek 
commanders were entrapped and murdered ; but, under the 
leadersliij) n\' Xfiioplion (])p. .33, 110), the Ten Thousand mad(> 
a remarkal)]e retreat to the Blaek Sea. 

rntil this time the Greeks had waged their contests witli 
Persia only along the eoftsfs of Asia. After the Ten Thousand had 
marched, almost at will, through so many hostile nations, the 
Greeks began to dream of eonquering the Asiatie eontinent. Indeed, 
in .'^9(), Agesilaus, king of Sparta, in\a(led Asia ]\linor with a 
large army ; but, in full career of concpiest, was called back 
by revolts in Greece. 

Sparta had used her power, with brutal cunning, to keep 
down the Ixginnings of greatness everywhere else in Hellas, 
breaking up promising leagues and even dispersing the inhabit- 
ants of Mantinea (leading city of neighboring Arcadia) into 
villages. Naturally, idliance after alliance rose against her — 
until finally she was overthrown by her old ally, Thebes — 
whose citadel had been seized treacherously /// time of peace, 
by a S|)artan army. 

That garrison set uj) a Tlicban uoxcrnmcnt of oligarchs, 
which dro\-e crowds of |)atri()tic citizens into exile. Athens 
shelti'red these exiles, as Thel)(\s had protected Athenian fugi- 
tives from the Thirty T\rants. Then a number of daring 
young iiH'H among the exiles returned secretly to Thebes, and, 
through the aid of friends then*, were admitted (disguised as 
daneing girls) to a l)an(|uet where the Theban oligarchs were 
alreadx dee|) in wine. They killed the (lruid<en traitors with 
their daggers. Then, runmng through the streets, they called 
the people to exjx'l the Si)artans from the citadel. Thehcs 



PLATE XXII 





Above. — The Parthenon To-day — West Front. 

Below. — A Portico of the Erechtheum (" Porch of the Maidens "). 
The use of human figures for columns to sustain weight is rare in 
Greek architecture ; but in this case the artist secured an effect of 
serene repose. This temple to Athene was built during the stress of 
the Peloponnesian War, upon the site of an ancient shrine to the 
goddess in a palace of a legendary King Erechtheus. 



THEBAN LEADERSHIP— EPAMINONDAS 



131 



became a democracy under the. lead of Epaminondas, who now 
stood to Thebes somewhat as Pericles had done to Athens. 

A powerful Spartan army at once invaded Boeotia (in 371 Battle of 
B.C.) and met with an overwhelming defeat by a smaller Theban ^^^^^^^ 
force at Leuctra. This amazing result was due to the military 
genius of Epaminondas. Hitherto the Greeks had fought in 
long lines, from eight to twelve men deep. Epaminondas 
massed his best troops in a solid column, fifty men deep, on the 
left, opposite the Spartan wing in the Peloponnesian army. 
His other troops were 
spread out as thin as pos- 
sible. The solid phalanx 
was set in motion first ; 
then the thinner center 
and right wing advanced 
more slowly so as to en- 
gage the attention of the 
enemy opposite, but not 
to come into action. The 
weight of the massed 
Theban charge crushed 

through the Spartan line, and trampled it under. Four hun- 
dred of the seven hundred Spartans, with their king and with 
a thousand other Peloponnesian hoplites, went down in ten 
minutes. 

The mere loss of men was fatal enough, now that Spartan Fall of 
citizenship was so reduced (the number of full citizens after ^P*^*** 
this battle did not exceed fifteen hundred) ; but the effect upon 
the military prestige of Sparta was even more deadly. At one 
stroke Sparta sank into a, second-rate power; but she met her 
fate with heroic composure. The news of the overthrow did 
not interfere with a festival that was going on in Sparta, and 
only the relatives of the survivors of the battle appeared in 
mourning. 

For a brief time after Leuctra, Thebes was the head of Greece. 
Epaminondas was great as general, statesman, and philosopher. 
In his earlier days he had been looked upon as a dreamer ; and 




132 



TIIK C.KKKKS 



Theban 
supremacy 
under 
Epami non- 
das 



Fall 

of Thebes 



\\\\vn {\iv oligarchs of Thclx's dnoxc out ''(icflrc"' j)atriots tlioy 
only siioorhI whilo P>paininoii(las continued calmly to tall: of 
liberty to the young. Later, it was recognized that, more than 
any other man, he had prepared the way for a free democracy. 

Unhappily, the few years remaining of his life Epaminondas 
w^as compelled to give mainly to war. Laconia was repeatedly 
invaded. During these campaigns, on one side of Sparta, 
Epaminondas freed Messenia — which for two centuries had 
been a mere district of Laconia — and on the other side, or- 
ganized Arcadia into a federal union, so as to "surround Sparta 
with a perpetual blockade." The great The])an aided the Mvs- 
senians to found a new capital, Mcssrnc, and in Arcadia he 
restored Mantinea. In this district he also founded Mcgalojfo- 
lis, "the Great City," by conibiiiiiig forty scattered villages. 

The leadership of Thebes, howex'er, rested solely on the 
supreme genius of her one statesman. In 'M\'2, for the fourth 
time, Epaminondas marched against Sparta, and at Mantinea 
won another complete victory. The Spartans had been unable 
to learn ; and went down again before the same tactics that had 
crushed th<'m nine years earlier at Leuctra. Mantinea was the 
greatest land battle ever fought between Hellenes ; but the 
victory bore no fruit, for Epaminondas fell on the field, and 



I 



is citv sank at once to a sh 



In; 



I Slow and narrow ])()n('y 



The 

Macedonian 

conquest 



PhiUp II 



The failure of tiic (ircck cities to unite into larger stat(>s 
iniwle it certain that sooner or later tliey must fall to some 
outside ])()wer. Sparta and Thebes (with Persian aid) had 
been able to prevent .\thenian l(Nidership ; Thebes and .Athens 
had overthrown Sparta; Sj)arta and Athens had been able to 
check Thebes. Twenty years of anarchy followed ; and then 
Greece fell to a foreign master. 

Tntil some years after Leuctra. the MaciMlonjans (part of 
the outer rim (^f the (Jreek race) had been only a loose miion of 
barbarous tribes. Then Philij) II (ambitious, crafty, sagacious, 
persistent, unscrui)ulous, an unfailing judge of character, and a 
marvelous organizer) made his people a nation, and set him.self 
to make them true (ireeks by making them the leaders of Greece. 



CONQUEST BY MACEDONIA 



133 



At his accession Macedon was a poor country without a good 
harbor. The first need was an outlet on the sea. PhiHp 
found one by conquering the Chalcidic peninsula — whose 
gold mines furnished him a huge revenue. Soon he turned his 
energies to Greece. In all Greek states, among the pretended 




GROWTir 

OF 

MACEDONIA 

SCALE OF MILES 



PvwTn Macedonia at the hegmning ^ 
r.^'S'vC^ of Philip's Reign 

VW/////X Territory added by Philip 
u//////l/ 4 „ before Chaeronea. 






*& o 



patriots, there were secret servants in his pay, while even some 
farsighted leaders (like Isocrates at Athens) seem to have 
believed honestly that the hope of Greece lay in union under 
Macedon. 

Philip 's wealth made it possible for him to keep a disciplined The 
army ready for use. This army was as superior to the two- ph^la^^ 
months citizen armies of Hellas as his secret and persistent 
"diplomacy" was more cunning and efl'ective than the changing 



lU 



TIIK (IRKKKS 



Demos- 
thenes and 
his 
Philippics 



Philips 
conquest of 
Greece 




Philip II of Macedon. — A gold me- 
dallion l)y Alexander. 



counsrls and open plans of a pnl)lic' ass('inl)ly. Dnrin^^ a stay 
at Thebes wliih* a Ixn, Philip had Ix-coine fainihar with tlie 
Thehan phahmx. He now enhir^^ed and improved it, so that the 

ranks presented five rows 
of bristling spears projeet- 
in^- beyond the front rank 
of soldiers. The flanks 
were proteeted by liirht- 
arined troops, and the 
Macedonian nobles fur- 
nislicd the finest of eav- 
alry. At the same time a 
field "artillery" first ap- 
])ears, made n]) of enrious 
engines able to throw darts 
and great stones three hun- 
dred yards. Such a iiii.r- 
turc of frdlncfl troops, on a 
prrnKUicnf foofinf/, ir<ts altofpihcr novel. Philip created the 
instrument with which his son was to conquer the world. 
The only man who constantly opposed Philip (although in 
vain) was Demosthenes the Athenian. Demosthenes was the 
greatest orator of Greece. To check Macedonia became the 
one aim of his life; and the last glow of Greek indepiMidence 
flames up in his passionate appeals to Athens that she defend 
Hellas against Miicedon as she had once done against Persia. 
" Suppose," he cried in one of his noble "Philippics," "that 
you have one of the gods, as surety that Philip will l(>av(^ uou 
untouched, in the name of all the gods, it is a shame for you in 
ignorant stupidity to sacrifice the rest of Hellas I " 

In 'X\S, n.( ., Philij) thn^w off the mask, iinaded Greece, jind 
crushed the combined Athenians aiul Thebans at Clnirrotnd. 
Then a congress of (ireek states at ( Orinth rcroguizcil Miindonia 
(IS the lu'dd of Grrcrc. The se|)arate states were to kee]) their 
local self-government, but foreign matters, including war and 
peace, were committed to Philip. Philip was also declared 
general in ch'uf of the (innies of (Jreeee for a war against Persia. 



PART III -THE GEAEOO-OEIENTAL WORLD 

The seed-ground of European civilization is neither Greece nor the 
Orient, but a world joined of the two. — Benjamin Ide Wheeler. 



CHAPTER XIV 
ALEXANDER JOINS EAST AND WEST 

Two years after Chaeronea, Philip of Macedon was assas- Alexander 
sinated. He was just ready to begin the invasion of Asia ; q^^^^ .. 
and the work was taken up by his son Alexander. As a boy, 336 B.C. 
Alexander had been fearless and self-willed, with fervent affec- 
tions. He was devoted to Homer, and he knew the Iliad by 
heart. Homer's Achilles he claimed for an ancestor and took 
for his ideal. His education was directed by Aristotle (p. 143), 
and from this great teacher he learned to admire Greek culture. 

yVt his father's death Alexander was a stripling of twenty years. Order 
He was to prove a rare military genius. He never refused an ^®s*<'''®<* 
engagement and never lost a battle, and he could be shrewd and 
adroit in diplomacy ; but at this time he was known only as 
a rash boy. Revolt broke out everywhere ; but the young king 
showed himself at once both statesman and general. With 
marvelous rapidity he struck crushing blows on this side and on 
that. For a second revolt Thebes was sacked and leveled with 
the ground, except the house of Pindar (p. 73), and the miser- 
able thirty thousand survivors w^ere sold as slaves. 

Then, with his authority firmly reestablished, Alexander Conquest 
turned to attack Persia. In 334 B.C., he crossed the Hellespont p *^® 
with 35,000 troops, an army quite enough to scatter any Oriental Empire 
force, and as large as any general could handle well in that day 
on long marches in a hostile country. The route of march can 
best be traced on the map opposite. The conquest of the 

135 



13(i 



Tin-: GRAECO-ORTEKTAL WORLD 



cinpirc took fixe years, and tlu- storv falls into tlirce ])arts, each 
marked hy a t'anums l)attle. 

1. Tlie Persian satraps of A,si(i Minor met the in\aders at 
I lie (irdnlcii.s', a small stream in ancient Troyland. Alexander 
himself led the Macedonian charge tlirough the river and uj) 
the steep bank into the midst of the Persian cavalry, where he 
barely escaped <h^ath. The victory made him master of all 
Asia Minor. 

2. To strike at the heart of the empire at once would haxc 
been to leave behind him a large Persian fleet, to encourage 
revolt in Greece. Alexander wisely deierinined to secure the 
entire coa^si, and so make safe his "line of communication." 
Accordingly he turned south, to reduce Phoenicia and Egypt. 
Meantime the Persians had gathered a great army; but in a 
narrow defile at /.s'.v//.s' Alexander easily overthrew their host of 
six hundred thousand men led by King Darius in person. He 
now assumed the title, King of Persia. The siege of Tyre 
(p. 47) detained him a year; l)ut Kgyi)t welcomed him as a 
deliverer. While in that country he founded Ale.vdndrid at 
the mouth of the Nile — a city destined to be for many centuries 
a eonmiercial and intellectual center for the world, where before 
there had been only a haunt of ])irates. 

'A. Darius now j)roi)osed that he and Alexander should share 
the <-m|)ii"e between them, with the lMi])hrates foi" the di\ iding 
line. Rejecting this (►ll'ei- eontemi)tuously, Ale.vauder took up 
his nmreh for the interior. Following the ancient route from 
Egypt to Assyria, he met Darius near Arhehi, not far from 
ancient Xinexch. The Persians are said to have nuud)ered a 
million men. Alexander j)in*p()sely allowed them choice of time 
and i)laee, and by a third deeisix'e victory />roV((l the hopelessness 
of their resistance. Darius nexcr gathered another army. The 
capitals of the em])ir<* — Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, PtMsepolis 
— surrendered, with enoiiuous treasure in gold and sihcr, and 
the Persian Em})ire had fallen i'.V.U \ix\). 

The next six >'ears went to more desperate warfare in the 
eastern mountain regions, and in India. .Mexander carried 
his arni'^ as far east from Hab\ Ion as Hab\ Ion was from Mace- 



FUSION OF EAST AND WEST 1E7 

donla. He traversed great deserts ; subdued the warlike and 
princely chiefs of Bactria and Sogdiana up to the steppes of 
the wild Tartar tribes beyond the Oxus ; twice forced the passes 
of the Hindukush; conquered the valiant mountaineers of 
what is now Afghanistan; and led his army into the fertile 
and populous plains of northern India. He crossed the Indus, 
won realms beyond the ancient Persian province of the Punjab, 
and planned still more distant empires ; but on the banks of the 
Hyphasis River his faithful Macedonians refused to be led 
farther, to waste away in inhuman perils ; and the chagrined 
conqueror was compelled to return to Babylon. This city he 
made his capital, and here he died of a drunken fever two years 
later (323 B.C.) at the age of thirty -two. 

Alexander began his conquest to avenge the West upon the Merging of 
East. But he came to see excellent and noble qualities in ^gg^^^ 
Oriental life, and he rose to a broader view. He aimed to fuse 
the East and the West into a new civilization. Persian youths 
were trained by thousands in Macedonian fashion to replace 
the veterans of Alexander's army; Persian nobles were wel- 
comed at court and given high offices ; and the government of 
Asia was intrusted largely to Asiatics, on a system similar to 
that of Darius the Great. Alexander himself adopted Persian 
manners and customs, and he bribed and coaxed and forced his 
officers and soldiers to do the like. 

At the same time Alexander saw that to fulfill this mission he Hellenism 

must open the East to Greek ideas. The races might mingle the leaven 

^ , '^ , '^ for the mass 

their blood ; the Greek might learn much from the Orient, and 

in the end be absorbed by it; but the thought and art of little 

Hellas, with its active energy, must leaven the vast passive mass of 

the East. 

' One great measure, for this end, was the founding of chains The many 

of cities, to bind the conquests together and to become the ^^^^^^^^"^s 

homes of Hellenic influence. Alexander himself built seventy 

of these towns. Their walls sprang up under the pick and spade 

of the soldiery along the lines of march. One great city, we 

are told, walls and houses, was completed in twenty days. 



138 



TIIK (iKAKCO OKIKXTAL WOULD 



Soiiu'tiines these places were mere garrison towns on distant 
frontiers, hut oftener they l)eeanu' mighty emporiums at the 
intersection of great hues of trjide. There was an Alexandria 
on the Jaxartes, on tlie Indus, on the Euphrates, as well as on 
the Nile. Many of these cities remain great capitals to this 
day, like Herat and Kandahar. (Iskandar, or Kandahar, is an 
Oriental form of the Greek name Alexander.) 
Greek col- This building of Greek cities was continued by Alexander's 
omes in the successors. Once more, and on a vaster scale than ever before, 
the Greek genius for colonization found vent. Each iirw city 
had a Greek nucleus. At first this consisted mainly of worn-out 




Alexandkr. Alexander in a Lion-hunt. 

The two sides of a Rold medallion struck by Alexander at Tarsus, 



Cities in the 
age of 
Alexander 



veterans, left behind as a garrison ; l)ut adxcnturous youth, 
emigrating from old Hellas to win fortune, ('ontinu(>d to rein- 
force the Greek element. The native \ illage people roundabout 
were gatheri'd in to make the bulk of the inhal)itants ; and these 
also soon became " Hellenized." 

These cities were well paved. Tliey had am])le provision for 
lighting by night, a good water supj)ly, and ])()liee protection. 
Tliey met in their own asseinl)lies, managed their own courts, 
and collected their own taxes. For ci-ntin-ies they made the 
backbone of Hellenism throughout the world. Greek was the 
or(!iii;'r\- speech of tlieir streets; Greek architrcture built their 
temples, and Greek sculpture adorned them ; they celebrat<'(l 



A NEW CIVILIZATION 139 

Greek games and festivals. No longer in little Hellas alone, 
but over the whole East, in Greek theaters, vast audiences 
were educated by the plays of Euripides. The culture developed 
by a small people became the heritage of a vast Graeco-Oriental 
world. 

Wealth was enormously augmented in the West. The vast Wealth 
treasure of gold and silver which Oriental monarchs had hoarded ^^g^^^ted 
in secret vaults was thrown again into circulation, and large sums 
were brought back to Europe by returning adventurers, along 
with a new taste for Oriental luxuries. Manifold new comforts 
and enjoyments adorned and enriched life. 

A neiv era of scientific progress began. Alexander himself had Science 
the zeal of an explorer. When he first touched the Indus, he ^ ^^^ce 
thought it the upper course of the Nile ; but he built a great 
fleet of two thousand vessels, sailed down the river to the Indian 
Ocean, and then sent his friend Nearchus to explore that sea 
and to trace the coast to the mouth of the Euphrates. After a 
voyage of many months, Nearchus reached Babylon. He had 
mapped the coast line, made frequent landings, and collected a 
mass of observations and a multitude of strange plants and 
animals. This expedition was more important for its day than 
the famous scientific exploration by Lewis and Clark, from the 
Missouri to the Pacific, was in its day. At other times, scientific 
collections were made by Alexander, to be sent to his old in- 
structor Aristotle, who embodied the results of his study upon 
them in a Natural History of fifty volumes. (At one time, it is 
said, a thousand men were engaged in making such collections.) 

Thus Alexander's victories enlarged the map of the world 
once more, and made these vaster spaces the home of a higher 
culture. They grafted the new West upon the old East, — a 
graft from which sprang the plant of our later civilization . 

For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, I, Nos. 108-118, and 
Wheeler's Alexander the Great. 




Public Buildings of Pergamos, a Greek city of Asia, as "restored" by 
Thiersch. The city lay lower down, upon the pl9,in. 

CHAPTER XV 
THE HELLENISTIC WORLD, 323 150 B.C. 



AU'xandcr left no licir old enough to succeed him. On liis 
deathbed, asked to whom he woidd leave his throne, he replied 
^Timly, " To the strongest" ; and for a half century, as he foresaw, 
the history of the civilized world was a horrihle welter of war 
and assassination. 

About 280 B.C., somethinjA' like a fixed order emerged. Then 
followed a period of sixty years, known as tlie (Mnri/ of Ilfllciii^'m. 
Tlie Hellenistic' world reached from the Adriatic to the Indus, 
and consisted of: (1) three great kingdoms, Sj/ri<i, Fjij/pf, and 
Mdcrdonin ; (2) a broken cliain of smaller monarchies scattered 
from Media to Kjnrus (some of tlieni. like Poiiius and Anncnia, 
under dynasties descended from Persian i)rinces) ; and (3) 
many single free cities like liifzdiithnn and Ixliodr.s. 

In many wai/s all the ra,st district bore a strikiiKj rc.snnhlaficr 
fo modern Europe. There was a like division into great and small 
states, ruled by dynasties related l)y intermarriages; there 
was a common ci\ ili/ation. and a iceognition of common interests 
as against outside barbarism ; and there were shifting alliances, 

' HiUiiiic ri'fiTS to tilt' old lit'lhis; Iltllittistu-, to flu- widiT world, of 
mixed HoIUmiIc and Oriental cliaractor, after Alexander. 

140 



THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE 



141 



and many greedy wars to preserve "the balance of power" or 
to secure trade advantages. There was a likeness to modern 
society, too, in the refinement of the age, in its excellences and 
its vices, the great learning, the increase in skill and in criti- 
cism, and, toward the close, in socialistic agitation among hungry 
sullen mobs against the 
ostentatious and waste- 
ful wealth that jostled 
them in the cities. 

One event was of gen- 
eral interest, the great 
Gallic invasion of 278 
B.C. This w^as the first 
formidable barbarian at- 
tack upon the Eastern 
world since the Scythians 
had been chastised by 
the early Persian kings. 
A century before, hordes 
of these same Gauls 
had devastated northern 
Italy and sacked the 
rising city of Rome. Now 
they poured into ex- 
hausted Macedonia, pen- 
etrated into Greece as far 
as Delphi, and carried 




Invasion 
by the 
Gauls 



The Apollo Bklvkdekk, —representing the 
god defending his temple at Delphi with 
his thunderbolt from a raid of Gauls. The 
statue commemorates a raid which in some 
way was repulsed in disorder. 



havoc even into Asia. 
For a long period every great sovereign of the Hellenic world 
turned his arms upon them, until they were finally settled 
as peaceful colonists in a region of Asia Minor, which took from 
them the name Galatia. 

Immediately upon Alexander's death, one of his generals, 
Ptolemy, chose Egypt for his province. His descendants, all 
known as Ptolemies, ruled the land until the Roman conquest. 
Ptolemy I built the first lighthouse to protect the growing 
commerce of Alexandria. Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) restored 



Egypt 



142 



Tlll<: (lltAECO-ORIENTAL WORLD 



the old canal from tlic Rod wSea to tho Nile, constructed other 
roads, and fostered learning more than any of the world rulers 
before him. 

The A])out 220 B.C. there began a general political decline in the 

Alexandrian Hellenistic world. The thrones of Syria, Egypt, and Mace- 
donia all fell to boys who showed a degeneracy ommon in 

Oriental ruling fami- 
lies after a few great 
generations. But the 
splendor of Hellenis- 
tic civilization grew 
brighter for a half 
century longer. The 
whole period from 2<S0 
to 150 B.C. is often 
known as " the Alex- 
andrian Age" — from 
Egyptian capital 
other 




Alexandrian Lighthouse (Tower of Pharos), 
as "restored" by Adler. The tower rose 325 
feet (thirty stories) into the air, and from the iU„ 
summit a p;roup of polished reflecting mirrors 
threw its lisht at night far out to sea. It which led the 



centers of culture. 
This many-sided age 
new forms 



seemed to the Jewish citizens of Alexandria 

to make real once more the old Hebrew story 

Literature of the Pillar of Cloud by day and of Fire by 

night, — to guide wanderers on the wastes of pi.()(|yf.(>(| 

waves. "AH night," said a Greek poet, " will } 

the sailor, driving before the storm, see the in art and literature: 

fire gleam from its top." This structure especially (1) the prose 

stood for more than 10 centuries. 1 ' . 

roiiKinrr, a story of 

love and adventure, the forerunner of the modern novel ; 
(2) thr ])(isfor(iJ j)ortri/ of Throcritua, which was to influence 
Virgil and Tennyson; and {?>) personal memoirs. Treatises on 
literary criticism abounded ; the science of grammar was devel- 
oped ; and poets ])ri(ied themselves uj)on writing all kinds of 
verse e(iuall.\ \\«ll. Iiitelleetiially. in its faults, as in its virtues, 
the time strikingly resenil)les our own.' 

' This period saw also the most iiiip(.rt;int :itt(>nipt at a fcdornl government 
that the world was to know until the founding of the I'nited States of 
America. For many years thr Achat an L< a'juc st^emed alx)Ut to revive the 
ancient glory of old Hellas: but this promise was ruined by a selfish war 
with a reformed and "socialistic" Sparta, and Macedonian rule was again 
established- 



PLATO AND ARISTOTLE 



143 



Painting was carried to great perfection. According to Painting 
popular stories, Zeuxis painted a cluster of grapes so that birds , 
pecked at them, while Apelles painted a horse so that real 
horses neighed at the sight. Greek sculpture, too, produced 
some of its greatest work in this period. Among the famous 
pieces that survive are the Dying Gaul, the Apollo Belvedere 
(p. 141), the Venus of Milo (Melos), and the Laocoon group. 

After Socrates, Greek philosophy had three periods. {For Philosophy 
the Spartan and Theban period.) The most famous disciple 

of Socrates is known , 

best by his nick- 
name Plato (" broad- 
browed"). His name, 
and that of his pupil 
and rival, Aristotle, of 
the next period, are 
among the greatest in 
the history of ancient 
thought, — among the 
very greatest, indeed, 
in all time. Plato 
taught that things are 
merely the shadows of 
ideas and that ideas 
alone are real. This 
statement gives a very 
imperfect picture of 

his beautiful and mystical philosophy — which is altogether 
too complex to treat here. It is more important to know that, 
for the first time in history, Plato planned an ideal state (his 
Republic), — so prophesying a time when men shall build the 
world intelligently. 

{For the Macedonian period.) Aristotle, in sharp contrast with 
Plato, cared about things. Besides his philosophical treatises, 
he wrote upon rhetoric, logic, poetry, politics, physics and 
chemisi:ry, and natural history ; and he built up all the knowl- 
edge g; thered by the ancient world into one complete system. 




Venus {Aphrodite^ or Melos. — This beautiful 
statue is now in the Louvre. 



144 



TTTK CHAKCO-ORIKXTAL WOFJLD 



For the intellectual world of liis dax lie '.vorked a task not 
unlike that of liis ])iii)il Alexaiidei- in the political world. More 
tlian any othci- of the ancients, too, he was nianx-sided and 
modern in his way of thiidvin*;-. 

(For flir j)! riixl (iffrr Alr.vdtidcr.) During- the Wars of the Suc- 
cession, two new philosophical systems were horn, — Kpicurcitn- 
ism and Stoicism. Each called itself highly "practical." 
Neither asked, as older philosophies had done, "What is true? " 
Stoicism asked (in a sense following Socrates), "What is right? " 
and Epicureanism asked merely, "What is expedient?" One 
sought virtue; the other, happiness. Neither sought knowl- 
edge. 

1. Epicurus was an Athenian citizen. He taught that cNcry 
man muM pursue happiness as an end, hut that the highest 
pleasure was to he ohtained by a wise choice of the refined 
pleasures of the mind and of friendship, — not by gratifying 
the lower appetites. He advised temperance and virtue as 
means to lia])j)iness ; and he himself lived a frugal life, saying 
that with a crust of bread and a cup of cold water he could 
rival Zeus in happiness, lender cover of his theories, however, 
some of his followers taught and practiced gross lixing. 

The Epiciu-i'ans denied the suj)ernatural, and held death 
to be the end of all things. Epicureanism produced some 
lovable characters, but no exalted ones. 

2. Zeno the Stoic also taught at Athens, in the ])ainted porch 
(stoa) on the north side of the market place. His followers 
made \irtue, not haj)j)iness, the end of life. If haj)i)iness were 
to come at all, it would come, they said, as a result, not as an 
end. They placed emphasis ui)on the dignity of human nature : 
the wi.se man should be su])erior to the accidents of fortune". 

The Stoics believed in the gods as manifestations of one 
Divine Pro\idence that ordered all things well. The noblest 
characters of the (xreck and Roman world from tliis time be- 
longed to this sect. Stoicism was inclined, however, to ignore 
th<' gentler and kindlier side of human life; and with bitter 
natures it merged into the philosophy of the Cynics, of whom 
Dittgcncs, with his tub an<l lantern, is the great example. Both 



SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS 145 

Stoics and Epicureans held to a wide brotherhood of man, — 
one result of the union of the world in the new Graeco-Oriental 
culture. 

The closing age of Hellenistic history saw the forerunner of Libraries 

the modern university. The beginning was made at Athens. ^^^ 

*^ ^ museums; 

Plato, by his will, left his gardens and other property to his " univer- 
foUowers, organized in a club. Athenian law did not recognize ^'^^^^ 
the right of any group of people to hold property, unless it were 
a religious body. Therefore this club claimed to be organized 
for the worship of the Muses, who were the patrons of literature 
and learning ; and the name Museum was given to the institu- 
tion. This ivas the first endowed academy, and the first union of 
teachers arid learners into a corporatio7i} 

The idea has never since died out of the world. The model 
and name were used a little later by the Ptolemies at Alexan- 
dria in their " Museum." This was a richly endowed institution, 
with many students. It had a great library of over half a 
million volumes (manuscripts), with scribes to make careful 
copies and explain the meaning of doubtful passages by notes. 
Every important city in the Hellenic world wished its library 
to have an "Alexandrian edition" of each famous book, as 
the standard work upon which to base copies. (It is upon such 
copies that our modern printed editions of Greek books are 
mainly based.) One enterprise, of incalculable benefit to the 
later world, shows the -zeal of the Ptolemies in collecting and 
translating texts. Alexandria had many Jews in its population, 
but they were coming to use the Greek language. Ptolemy 
Philadelphus had the Hebrew Scriptures translated into Greek 
for their benefit. This is the famous Septuagint translation, so 
called from the tradition that it was the work of seventy scholars. 

The Alexandrian Museum had also observatories and bo- 
tanical and zoological gardens, with collections of rare plants 
and animals from distant parts of the world ; and the libra- 
rians and other scholars who were gathered about the institu- 
tion corresponded to the faculty of a modern university. 

1 A corporation is a body of men recognized by the law as a "person" so 
far as property rights go. 



146 



THE GRARCO-ORIENTAL WORLD 



Science Science made j^reater strides than ever ))ef()re in an equal 

length of time. Medicine, surgery, l)otany, and mechanics 
began to be real sciences. Archimedes of Syracuse discovered 
the principles of the lever and of specific gravity, as our high 
school students learn them in physics, and constructed burning 
mirrors and new hurling engines which made effective siege 
artillery. FAiclid, a Greek at Alexandria, building upon the 
old Egyptian knowledge, produced the geometry which is still 
taught in our schools with little addition. Eratosthenes (born 




CTha Latin names arc fakm from Rtraho, two rrnturies later, 
who clost>ly followed Eratosthenes.) 



27(3 B.(\), a librarian at Alexandria, wrote a systematic work 
on geography, invented delicate astronomical instruments, 
and devised the present way of measuring the circumference 
of the earth — with results nearly correct. His maps were 
the first to use meridians and parallels to show latitude and longi- 
tude. ;\ little later, Aristnrrhus taught that the earth moved 
round the sun ; and Ilippnrchus calculated eclipses, catalogued 
the stars, wrote books on astronomy, and founded the science 
of trigonometry. Aristotle had already given all the proofs of 
the sphericity of the earth that are common in our textbooks 
now (except tliat of actual circumnavigation) and had asserted 
that men could j)roh(d>li/ narh .l.vm I>j/ sdilijiq ircsf from Europe. 



OUR HERITAGE FROM THE GREEKS 147 

The scientific spirit gave rise, too, to actual voyages of explora- 
tion into many regions. Daring discoverers brought back from 
northern regions wild tales of icebergs gleaming in the cold aurora 
of the polar skies, and, from southern voyages, stories of hairy 
men ("gorillas") in vine-tangled tropical forests. 

The Greek contributions to our civilization we cannot name our debt 
and count, as we did those from the preceding Oriental peoples. *o Hellas 
Egypt and Babylon gjave us outer features, — garments, if we 
choose so to speak, for the body of our civilization. But the 
Greeks gave us its soul. Said a great historian, " There is nothing 
that moves in the world to-day that is not Greek in origin."^ 
Because the Greek contributions are of the spirit rather than 
of the body, they are hard to describe in a brief summary. One 
supreme thing, how^ever, must be mentioned. The Greeks gave 
us the ideal of freedom, regulated by self-control, — freedom in 
thought, in religion, and in politics. 

References for Further Study. — Specially suggested : Davis' 
Readings, I, Nos. 119-125 (19 pages, mostly from Polybius, Arrian, and 
Plutarch, the three Greek historians of that age). 

Additional: Plutarch's Lives C'Aratus," "Agis," ''Cleomenes," 
"Philopoemen") ; Mahaffy's Alexander's Empire. 

Fact Drills on Greek History 

1. The class should form a Table of Dates gradually as the critical 
points are reached, and should then drill upon it until it says itself as the 
alphabet does. The following dates are enough for this drill in Greek 
historv. The table should be filled out as is done for the first two dates. 



776 B.C. 


First recorded Olympiad 


371 B.C. 


490 " 


Marathon 


338 " 


405 " 




220 " 



2. Explain concisely the following terms or names: Olympiads, 
Mycenaean Culture, Olympian Religion, Sappho. (Let the class extend 
the list several fold.) 

^See also theme sentences on page 53. 



PART IV -ROME 

The center of our studies, the goal uf our thoughts, the point to u-hich 
all paths lead and the point from which all paths start again, is to he found 
in Rome ami her abiding power. — Freeman. 



CHAPTER XVI 

LAND AND PEOPLE 

Liguria, Gallia Cisalpin.a, and Venetia are outside ancient " Italy" 
— which inchided only the Apennine peninsula, not the Po valley. Fix 
the position of Etruria, Latium, Campania, Samnium, antl the Sahines. 
(Observe that the Arnus (Arno), in Etruria, the Tiber, between Etruria 
and Latium, and the Liris, between Latium and Campania, are the 
most important rivers. Their basins were homes of early culture in 
Italy. 

About 200 M.v. tlu' historical "center of ^n'avity " sliiftcd ur.st- 
uuird once more to Ital\-, wbicli till then bad l)ccn niercl\- an out- 
lying fragment of tlie cixiiizcd world. Eiu'opcan culture hrgan 
in the peninsula nearest to the older civilizations of the East. 
Just as naturally, flic state which was to unite and rule all the coasts 
of the Mcdiicrrtniaiu had its home in the central /xn insula wliicli 
dixides tliat inland sea. 

Italy and (ireece stood l>ack to l)ack. Italy faced, not 
the old East, but the new Wrst. Tlu* mountains arc nearer the 
eastern coast than tlir western: so, on the nistern side the 
short rocky s])urs and swift torrents lose tbcmscKcs (juickly 
in the Adriatic. The westein slojx- is nearly twice as broad: 
here arc rivers and fertile plains, and, as a rcsidt, most of the 
few harbors and the important states. When Italy was ready 
for outside work, she gave herself first to eoiuinerini; and ci\ iliz- 
ing tlie lands of the western Mediterranean. 

1 IS 



ITALY 

REFERENCE MAP 




THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 



149 



In prehistoric times, the fame of Italy's rich plains and Races 
sunny, vine-covered slopes' had tempted swarm after swarm of 
barbarians across the Alps and the Adriatic ; and already 
at the opening of history the land held a curious mixture of 
races, — savage Gauls in the Po valley ; mysterious Etruscans 
just north of the Tiber ; Greeks in the south ; and in the center 
the Italians. The eastern Italians were highlanders (Sabines, 
Samnites, Volscians) ; the 
western, lowland Italians 
were called Latins, and 
one of their cities was 
Rome. 

The Etruscans came in 

from western Asia long be- 
fore the Greeks began to 

settle in Italy. They were 

mighty builders, and have 

left many inscriptions in u 

language to which scholars 

can find no key. Their early 

tombs contain articles of 

Egyptian, Phoenician, and 

early Greek workmanship, 

brought there by traders Etruscan Vase, — red figures on a black 

ground- There is a strong resemblance 
to ancient Cretan work ; and for other 
reasons some scholars suspect a close 
connection between Cretans and Etrus- 
cans. 




who doubtless taught them 
many arts. In turn, the 
Etruscans were Rome's first 
teachers. 



The Romans had no Homer.^ Their early history, as it Old legends 
was first put together by their historians about 200 B.C., was ^^^* ^^^^^ 
a mass of curious legends, without much value except for the 
place they hold in poem and story. But in recent years excava- 
tions have taught us many facts about early Rome. 

The Latins called their district Lathim. This territory was The early 

about the size of an ordinary American county. It was broken ^^*^"^ 

here and there by scattered hills; and on some one of these 

1 Some modern scholars, however, believe that there must have been a 
copious ballad literature among the people, from which early historians 
could draw. Macaulay's La?js of Ancient Rome was an attempt to reproduce 
such ballads as Macaulay thought must once have existed. 



150 



EAin.^' \i()\]K 



Trade with 
Etruscans 




ROME 

AND VICINITY 



The square 
Palatine 
town : the 
nucleus of 
Rome 



each Latin tribe liad its citadel. Once a year all Latins ^^athered 
at one of these hill forts, Mount Alba, for a festival in honor 
of the chief Latin god, Jnpiter ; and the straggling village 
Alba Longa (the Long White town) was the recognized leader of 

the Latin tribes in war against 
the robber bands of Sabines 
from the mountains and against 
the powerful Etruscans across the 
Tiber. 

In many ways, however, the 
Etruscans had become necessary to 
Latin comfort. The Latins them- 
selves were peasant farmers, with- 
out smiths or artisans among 
them. If a farmer needed a plow- 
share or a knife, he drove an ox 
across the plain to the bank of the Ti))er, or sometimes car- 
ried grain there, to trade it to some Etruscan for the tool. 

About twelve miles up the Tiber (a third of the way from 
the sea to tlie mountains) the river could be crossed by a ford 
at the foot of an island (map, p. 151). To this ])laee Etruscan 
traders very early began to bring wares of metal and wood on 
regular "market days," to temi)t this profitable Latin trade. 
Now and then, too, a Cretan or Phoenician sliij) thought it 
worth while to row up the river ; and to the same ])oint the Sa- 
bines from the foothills of the Apennines floated down their 
wine and grain on Hat l>arges. Just soutli of tlie ford arose a 
remarkable grouj) of seven low hills. The level space between 
these hills, ojx'ning on the v'wcv, became the regular market 
or For II III, for all this trade. 

At some early date the Etruscans improved the river-crossing 
i)y building a bridge there. The Latins feared lest the Etrtiscans 
use it for armed invasion, and so they guarded tli<'ir end of it by 
building a scpuire fort about the top of the Palatine, the steepest 
hill close by. !I( n a prniKiiitiii Lut'ni fmni (if oner qrrw up. 
This "scjuare town" (the earliest " Uoiiie") dates l>aek at least 
to 1200 u.c. ; and in places the walls may still be traced. 



THE SEVEN HILLS 



151 



Early settlements were made also on at least two other of other early 

the seven hills. Roman tradition says that one of these towns settlements 

was founded by an invading tribe of Sabines, and the other by seveiThills ; 

a conquering Etruscan tribe. No doubt, there was a long period ^^^ ^®^- 

eration 



ROME 

under tl 




1. Citadel (Arx). 

2. Temple of Jupiter (Capitolinus). 

3. "Quays of the Tarquins." 

4. Citadel at Janiculum. 



5. "Wall of Romulus." 

6. Temple of Vesta. 

7. Senate House (Curia). 

8. Comitium. 



of war between the three hill-forts, but, finally, the three settle- 
ments were united into one state, on an equal footing. Thns began 
the process of association that was later to unite Italy. Rome was a 
city, not of one hill, like most Italian towns, but of seven hills. 
About 750 B.C. the old kings gave way to "tyrants" (the 



152 



EAKLY ROME 



Rome the 
head of 
the Latin 
confederacy 



legendary Servius and tlie Tarquins) like tliose who seized 
power in Greek cities at about that time. Some of them seem 
to have been P^truscan adventurers, or conquerers. These 
"tyrants" drained the marshes and inclosed all seven hills 
within nwv wall — the so-called "wall of Servius" — takinj:^ 
in lar^^c ()\)vu s])a('('s for future city growtli. The huge (h'ain 




Etruscan Tombs near Orvieto, not far from Rome. A name on one 
tomb is made out to be Tarkhnos — which may bo the Tarquinius 
(Tarquin) of Roman story. 

(Cloaca Maxima) and the remains of a massive wall ])ictured 
in these pages are supposed to belong to this period. 

At tlic Til)cr mouth, these new kings founded ().sfi<i, tlir iirst 
Roman colonN', for a port; and. on xhv north side of the ri\'er, 
Rome seized and fortified Mount Jdfiiculuni. Before the year 
r)()0, several conquererl Latin towns had been razcfl, their lnh(thif- 
ajits brought to Rome, and Roni(> had succeeded to the hindship 
of thr Latin ronfrdcrdci/. 

The life of the early Romans was j)laiii and sinij)le. Their 
hnu,s-es were small Inits, often only one room, with no chinmey 
or window. Tiic open door and an opening in the j)eaked roof 



HOME LIFE AND RELIGION 153 

let out the smoke from the hearth fire, and let in light ; and a Home life 
slight cavity directly below the roof -opening received the rain. ^^^^ ^ 

Religion centered about the home and the daily tasks. For 
each house the door had its protecting god Janus, two-faced, Religion 
looking in and out ; and each hearth fire had the goddess Vesta. 
When the city grew powerful, it had a city Janus and a city 
Vesta. In the ancient round temple of Vesta, the holy fire of 



So-called Temple of Vesta, probably having nothing in common with 
the real ancient temple of the goddess except its circular form. The 
origin of this comparatively late building is not known. It is now a 
church. 

the city was kept always bright by the priestesses {Vestal 
Virgins), who had to keep themselves pure in thought and act, 
that they might not pollute its purity. 

Next to the house gods came the gods of the farm : Saturn, the 
god of sowing; Ceres, the goddess who made the grain grow; 
Venus, another goddess of fruitfulness ; and Terminus, a god 
who dwelt in each boundary pillar, to guard the bounds of the 
farm — and, later, the boundaries of the state. 

The early Romans had also an ancestor worship at each family 
tomb, and each Latin tribe had its ancestral deity. The war 
god, Mars, father of the fabled Romulus, was at first the special 



154 



EARLY ROME 



gi)(l of Ixoiiic. Bui ;it llic \wAi\ of all the tril)al ^'ods of Latiiiiu 
stood Jupiter (l'\itlirr Joxc) ; and when l{oiiic Itccainc the cen- 
tral Latin ])()\v('r, elnpitcr brcanic tlic center of the Roman re- 
ligion. Tlie later Romans borrowed some Greek stories about 
the gods (p. ().')); l»ut they lacked poetic imagination to create 
a l)eautiful mythology, as the Greeks had done. 
The augurs The gods at Rome manifested their will not 1)\- oracles hut 

l»y omens, or (nispitus. Tliese auspices were sought especially in 
tile conduct of birds, and in the color and size of the entrails 
of animals. The interpretation of such signs became a kind of 
science, in the possession of a "college" {collection) of augurs. 
Their "science" came from the Etruscans, and seems to have 
been related to old Babylonian customs. 

And the thrifty Roman drove hard bargains with his gods. 
The augurs, or soothsayers, called for fresh animals until the 
entrails gave the signs desired by the ruling magistrate, and 
then the gods were just as much bound as if they had shown 
favor at the first trial. The sky was watched until the de- 
sired birds did ap])ear, and, in the later periods, tame birds were 
kept to give the required indications. 



Patricians 

and 

plebeians 



The 

patrician 

family 



Like the Greek cities, Italian cities contained many non- 
citi/ens. In Rome this class was especially large, ])artly be- 
cause the city had brought within its walls many clans from 
con(|Uered cities, and j)artly because adxcnturers and refugees 
thronged to a ])r()S])erous commercial center. These non- 
citi/ens were /thhiidns. Some of them were rich; but none of 
them had any i)art in the religion, or law, or ))olilics of the city, 
nor could they intermarry with citizens. 

The citizens (the descendants of tlie three original tribes) 
were jHitricians, or "men with fathers." The Roman father 
had complete authority over his sons and grandsons as long as 
he li\('(l, e\'en when they wcrr grown men and j)«'rha})s in the 
ruling ofhees of the city. When his son took a wife, she, too, 
leaving her own family, came imder his control. His own 
daughters passed by marriage from his hand under tliat of 
some otiier house-father. The father luled his household. 



PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS 



155 



The Senate seems to Patrician 

government 



and the households of his male descendants, as priest, judge, and 
king. He could sell or slay his wife, unmarried daughter, 
grown-up son, or son's wife; and all that was theirs was his. 

The patrician government had three parts. The king stood The 
to the state as the father to the family, 
have been originally 
a council of the chiefs 
of the 300 clans (or 
gentes) that made up 
the three tribes. The 
Assembly was much 
like the Homeric 
gathering. It met 
only at the call of 
the king. It did not 
debate. It listened 
to the king's propos- 
als, and voted yes or 
no. 

Originally the army 
was made up of the 
patricians and their 
immediate depend- 
ents. But as the 
plebeians grew in 
numbers, the kings 
needed their service 
also. According to 
legend, " Servius " 
divided all landhold- 
ers, plebeian as well 
as patrician, into six 

classes, armed according to their wealth ; and each of these classes 
was divided into a fixed number of companies, or centuries. 
Now in barbarous society, the obligation to fight and the right The 
to vote go together (cf. page 76), and gradually this army Centuries ° 
of centuries became, in peace, an Assembly of Centuries, 




Gains by 
the plebs 
under the 
tj rants 



So-called Wall of Servius. The old leg- 
ends said that Servius built a wall about 
the seven hills. Cf. p. 151. This wall 
was thirteen feet thick and fifty feet high. 
It consisted of a huge rampart of earth, 
faced on each side by a wall of immense 
stones fitted together without mortar. Part 
of this colossal structure has been un- 
covered recently on the Aventine. 



156 



EARLY ROME 



The 

patrician 
minority 
manage to 
control the 
Assembly 



wliicli took oxer the ])oliti(al j)()\v('r of the older patrician 
Assembly. 

The patricians, however, held most of the j)o\ver in this new 
j:;atherin^'. As poj)ulation increased, the j)()orer classes ^n-ew in 
nuni))ers faster than the ricli ; hut they did not ^Min duly in 
political weight, l)ecanse the juitricifui.s Icrjd the Nioiihcr of au- 
fiirics from hcinf/ changed. The patricians had a majority 
in the centnri(>s of the richer classes. These centuries slu'ank 
up into skeleton companies, while the centuries of the lower 
classes came to contain far more than 100 men each; })}it each 
cefifiiri/, full or s/cclrfon, coinifcd jiisf one vote. This ^ave the 
patricians a vast advantage o\er tlie more numerous ])lel)eians. 

None the less it was a t^ain that the position of a man was 
fixed not by his birth, but by his wealth — something' that he 
mi^ht help chan^'c. The first great barrier against democracy 
was broken down. 



I 



dictator 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE EARLY REPUBLIC, TO 266 B.C. 

About 500 B.C. the patricians replaced their king by two The consuls 
elected consuls/ ruling for one year only. For that year, the 
consuls kept most of the old royal power — except that either 
might stop any act of the other by calling out Veto (" I forbid"). 

The danger of a deadlock by a mutual veto, which might be The 
fatal in a time of foreign peril, was avoided by a curious ar- 
rangement. At the request of the Senate either consul might 
appoint a dictator. This officer was the old king revived, save 
that his term of office could not exceed six mo7iths. 

The first century and a half of the Republic was a stern con- Class 
flict between patricians and plebeians. The last kings had struggles 
leaned upon the plebeians and had protected them. That 
order had lost, not gained, by the revolution. The overthrow 
of the kings had left Rome a patrician oligarchy. The ple- 
beians could hold no office ; they controlled only a minority 
of centuries in the Assembly, and they had no way even to get 
a measure considered. At best, they could vote only upon 
laws proposed by patrician magistrates, and they could help 
elect only patrician officers, who had been nominated by other 
patricians. The patrician Senate, too, had a final veto upon 
any vote of the centuries ; and, in the last resort, the patrician 
consuls could always fall back upon the patrician augurs to 
prevent a possible plebeian victory — since the augurs could 
forbid a vote by declaring the auspices unfavorable. Law was 
unwritten, and, to the plebs, unknown, so that it was easy 
for a patrician to take shameful advantage in lawsuits. 

The ruling class used their political advantages to secure 
unjust economic advantages. When Rome conquered a hos- 
tile city, she took away a half or a third of its territory.. This 

^ The stories for this period — Battle of Lake Regillus, Brutus and His 
Sons, Horatius at the Bridge, and the Porsenna anecdotes — should be 
read in Davis' Readings or in Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome. 

157 



158 



EARLY ROME 



Unjust 
privilege 



War hard 
upon the 
poor 



Plebeian 
slavery 



Plebeians 
win a 
■ general 
strike 



new territory became a common pasture ground. It belonged 
to the state, and a small tax was paid for the riglit to graze cattle 
upon it. But, by selfish patrician law, only the patricians had 
the right to use this grazing land ; and the patrician officers 
ceased even to collect the grazing tax. Thus the public land, 
won by plebeian blood, was enjoyed by the patricians as private 
patrician property. 

The farmer was called away frequently to battle. The 
plebeian had no servants to till his fields in his absence ; and 
his possessions were more exposed to hostile forays than were 
the strongly fortified holdings of his greater neighbor. He 
might return to find his crops ruined by delay, or his homestead 
in ashes. Thus, more and more, the plebeians were forced to 
borrow tax money, or to get advances of seed corn and cattle 
from patrician money lenders. On failure to pay, the debtor 
became the property of the creditor. He was compelled there- 
after to till his land (no longer his) for the creditor's benefit ; or, 
if he refused to accept this result, he was cast into a dungeon, 
loaded with chains, and torn with stripes. There were a few 
rich plebeians (from gain by trade), but they too were bitterly 
dissatisfied because they could not hold office or intermarry 
with the old Roman families. 

Livy, an early Roman historian, gives a graphic account of 
the first great clasli ])etween the classes — in 497 B.C. : 

The plehs, driven to despair by the cruelty of patrician creditors, 
refused to serve in the war against the Volscians, until the consul won 
them over by freeing all debtors from prison. But when the army 
returned victorious, the other consul refused to recognize his col- 
league's acts; he arrested the debtors again, and enforced the law with 
merciless cruelty. On a renewal of the war, the betrayed plebs again 
declined to fight; but finally Manius Valerius (of the great Valerian 
house "that loved the |)eople well") Was made dictator, and him they 
trusted. Victory again followed ; hut Valerius was unable to get the 
consent of the Senate to his proposed changes in the law. So the 
plebeian army, still in battle array outside the gates, marched away 
to a hill acro.ss the Anio, some three miles from Rome, where, they 
declared, they were going to build a Rome of their own. This first 
"general strike" in history forced the patricians to some real conces- 
sions (p. 159), and the plebs returned from the "Sacred Mount." 



CLASS STRIFE 159 

The patricians were especially bitter toward any of their own Patrician 
order who were great-souled enough to dare take the side of the st^o^od^for ° 
people. The first such hero was Spurius Cassius. He had justice 
served Rome gloriously in war and in statesmanship, and finally, 
as consul, he proposed a reform in the selfish patrician manage- 
ment of the public lands. The patricians raised the cry that 
he was trying to win popular favor so as to make himself tyrant. 
This was a favorite patrician trick — not unknown to much 
later ages. The plebeians allowed themselves to be fooled into 
deserting their noble champion, and he was put to death. 
Under like conditions, two other heroes, Spurius Maelius and 
Marcus Manlius, the man who had saved Rome from the Gauls 
(p. 161), fell before like charges. 

The secession of 497 B.C. gave the plebs the right to choose Tribunes 
tribunes, who had power to stop any magistrate in any act by 
merely calling out veto. From a seat just outside the Senate 
door, the tribune's shout could even stop proceedings in that 
body, and he could forbid a vote in the Assembly. Thus these 
representatives of the plebs could bring the whole patrician 
government to a standstill. This veto power could be exer- 
cised only within the city (not in war). A tribune's door was 
left always unlocked, so that a plebeian in trouble might have 
instant admission, and the tribune's person was made sacred, 
— a device which did not always protect against patrician 
daggers. 

The next great step dates from 460 B.C., when the plebs The Twelve 
began to demand written laws. The patricians opposed the 
demand furiously, but after a ten-year contest a board of ten 
men (Decemvirs) was elected to put the laws into writing. 
Their laws were engraved on twelve stone tables, in short, 
crisp sentences, and set up where all might read them. These 
"Laws of the Twelve Tables" were the basis of all later Roman 
law. Like the first written laws at Athens, they were very se- 
vere, and were for the most part simply old customs reduced to 
writing. The new thing about them was that they were now 
known to all, and that they applied to plebeian and patrician alike. 
, Then came a political gain. At some early date (legend 



Tables 



160 



EARLY ROME 



Assembly 
by Tribes 



A double 
state 



says in tlir days of Scrx ins) the city and its territory outside 
the walls had been divided into twenty-one "wards, or "tribes," 
for tlie military le\y. In some way the meetin^M)f the inhabit- 
ants of tlu'se local units grew into a regular "Assembly." 
The plebeians (who had no complete organization in fdood tribes) 
had come to use this new Assem})ly of jddcr "Tribes" to choose 
their tribunes and to adopt plans ; and here they passed decrees 
(plcbi.scita) binding upon (ill of their order. The tribunes called 
this Assembly together and j)resi(led over it, as tlie consuls did 
with the Assembly of Centuries. Now by threat of another 
"strike," the plebs forced the patricians to agree that their 
plebiscites should be law, hiiuliiuj iijxm the whole state, just as 
the decrees of the Assembly of Centuries were. (The Senate, 
of course, kept a veto upon both assemblies.) 

Thus the first half century of conflict set up a plebeian govern- 
ment over agjiinst the patrician government, — Assembly of 
Tribes and its Tribunes over against Assembly of Centuries 
and its Consuls. There was no arbiter, and no check 
upon civil war except the Roman preference for constitutional 
metliods. 



The 

Licinian 
Laws, 
367 B.C. 



Victory of 
the plebs 



To fuse these two rival governments into one took nearly 
a century more. Even after the two orders had begun to inter- 
marry, the patricians long resisted all attempts to open to 
plel)eians the sacred office of consul. In 377 n.c. the final 
campaign began. Under the wise leaden-hij) of the tribune 
Licinius Stolo, the j)lebeians united firmly in a ten-year struggle 
for a group of measures known as the Licinian Laws: (1) 
that at least one consul each year must be a jdeheian ; (2) that 
no citizen should hold more than SOO acres of the public lands; 
and (3) that payment of debts might be j)ostponed for three 
years — a measure made necessary by tlu^ universal distress 
that had followed a rec(>nt inxasion by sa\age Gauls (p. 161). 

Year by y(>ar the plebeians reelected Licinius and passed the 
decrees anew in the .Assembly of the Tribes. Each time the 
Senate vetoed the measures. Then the tribunes f()ri)ade the 
election of magistrates for tlie vear, and so U>ft the state without 



FUSION OF THE TWO ORDERS 161 

regular government (though one year, during danger of foreign 
war, they patriotically permitted consuls to be chosen). At 
last the patricians tried to buy off the masses, by offering to yield 
on the matters of debts and lands if they would drop the demand 
regarding the consulship. But Licinius succeeded in holding 
his party together for the full program ; and, in 367, the Senate 
gave way and the plebeian decrees became law. 

Plebeian consuls now nominated plebeians for other offices; 
and, since appointments to the Senate were made from those 
who had held high office, that body itself gradually became 
plebeian. The long struggle had seen no violent revolutions 
and no massacres, such as were common in class struggles in 
Greek cities. Except for the assassination of one tribune 
(Genucius) and a little political trickery now and then, the 
patricians after each defeat accepted the result in good faith, 
and the distinction between the classes soon died out. 

While Rome w^as most weakened by internal strife, she had The GalUc 
been obliged also to fight continually for life against outside 
foes, — Etruscans, Sabines, Volscians ; and in 390 B.C. the city 
was actually occupied by a horde of invading Gauls except 
that a small garrison, under the soldier Marcus Manlius 
(p. 159), still held the Capitoline citadel. Later Romans told 
the story that one night the barbarians had almost surprised 
even this last defense, but some hungry geese, kept there for 
religious sacrifices, awakened Manlius by their noisy cackling 
just in time for him to hurl back the invaders from the walls. 

But the Gauls were ravaged by the deadly malaria of the Ro- Rome 
man plain, and they had little skill or patience for a regular siege. ^^^^^ 
Finally they withdrew on the payment of a huge ransom. 
While the gold was being weighed, the Romans objected to 
the scales ; w^hereupon, as the story runs, the Gallic chieftain, 
Brennus, threw^ his sw^ord into the scale exclaiming "Vae Vic- 
tis" — "woe to the vanquished." Such has been the principle 
of many a peace treaty since. 

Other states in Italy had suffered by the Gauls as much as 
Rome, or more. Rome at once stood forth as the champion of 



1()2 



EAKI.V ROME 



Rome Italian cix ili/.at ion a<;aiiist the l)ail»ariaiis. Alter lirr own irn- 

expels the ,,„.,li;,t,- ,„.,i| was past, she followed up the invadcfs of Italv 

Gauls from ' ' ' 

Italy in \i^M)r()Us (•anij)ai^ns until they withdrew to the Po valley. 

Then, as soon as the Lieinian Laws had united her own people, 

.she fiinird in iiinic.sf fo uiiiit Ifahj under her rule. Soni<' j)OWerful 
alliances were formed against her, especially one hetween the 
warlike Saiunites of the southern Apeiuiines and the turbulent 
(lauls of the Po \alley; hnt, usinn' t<> the full the a(l\antati;e of 
her central |)osition, Konie always heat her foes one hy one 
l>efoi-e the\ could unite their forces. 



The war 

with 

Pyrrhus 



The final stru^^f,de was with Tarontuni, a ^rcat Greek city of 
the south, which had called in aid from Pyrrhus, the chivalrous 
kin^ of Epirus. 

Pyrrhus was one of the Greek military adventurers who arose 
after the death of Alexander. He came to Italy with a ^reat 

armament and with vast 
desi^^ns. He hoped to 
unite the Greek cities of 




A ' 'oIN "F PyUUII 



Mafjna Graecia and Sicily, 
and then to sulxlue Car- 
thage, the ancient enemy 
of Hellenes in the West. 
He knew little of Rome ; 
})Ut at the call of Tarentum he foinid himself en^^a<:e(l as a 
Greek chami)ion with this new ])ow('r. He x.oii some \ ic- 
torii'S, chiefly through his e|«'j)hants, which the Romans liad 
ncN'cr before encountered; hut, anxious to carry out his with-r 
j)lans, he oll'ered a faxoraMe j)eacc. I iidcr the leadership of 
an aj^ed and blind senatoi'. .\/)/>iu.s ('Innt/iits, (lefeate»l Rome an- 
swered hau^ditily that siic woidd treat witii no in\ader //'/////• 
ht stood nfxtn Ifdlidn soil. 

Pyrrhus chafed at the delay, and iinall> hurried oti" to Sicily, 
leaxinjj; his victory inconii>lete. The steady Roman advance 
called him back, and a uieat Roman \ ictor\ at BrncrrntuJii 
(27') H.c.) ruined his dream of emi)ire and i;av(> Ronu' that 
sovereij^nty of Italy which siic had claimed so resolutely. In 



BECOMES HEAD OF ITALY * 163 

266, she rounded oft' her work by conquering that part of Cisal- 
pine Gaul which lay south of the Po. 

The internal strife between classes in Rome had closed in 367. 
That strife had fused patricians and plebeians into one Roman 
people. Then that Roman people at once turned to unite Italy — 
and completed the task in just a century, 367-2G6 B.C. 

For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, II, Nos. 9-15 ; Ihne's 
Early Rome, 135-151, 165-190; and Pelham's Outlines, 68-97. 

Special Report by a student, from library material : the story of 
the Roman army sent " under the yoke " by the Samnite Pontius, and 
Rome's perfidy. 



("HAITKK Will 



UNITED ITALY UNDER ROMAN RULE AFTER 266 B.C. 



1. "CITIZENS" AND "SUBJECTS 



Classes of 
citizens 



Roman 
colonies 



Municipia 



The Tribes 
increased 
to thirty-five 



Italy now contained some 5,000,000 people. More than a 
fourth of these (some 1,400,000) were Roman citizru.s. The rest 
were .siihjirt.s, outside the Roman state. 

The majority of Ronian citizens no longer lived at Rome. 
Large parts of Latium and Etruria and Campania had become 
"suburbs" of Rome; and other towns of Roman citizens were 
found in distant parts of Italy. There were now three classes 
of citizens: (1) the inhabitants of Rome itself; (2) members of 
Roman colonics; and (3) members of Roman municipia. 

From an early date (p. 152) Rome had planted colonies of her 
citizens about the central city as military posts. The colonists 
and their descendants kept all the righis of citizens. Each 
colony had control over its local afi'airs in an Assembly of its 
own ; but representative (lorernment had not been worked oat, 
and in order to vote upon matters that concernexl the whole 
Roman state, the colonists had to come to Rome at the meeting 
of the Assembly there. This, of course, was usually impossible. 

There were many concpiered towns, too — especially the 
Latin and Sabine towns — which Rome incorporated into the 
state. Such a town was called a municipium. These municipia 
differed little from Roman colonies except in origin. (They 
represent, therefore, a new eontril)Ull()n to i)olitics. Athens 
had invented a clerucli s\ stem — the best adx anec^ up to her. 
time — corresponding to Rome's colonies; l)Ut she (hd not 
learn to give citizenship to roiKjuered states. By 2()() B.C., Rome 
li:id a "citizen" body five times as large as Athens excr had.) 

To suit this expansion of the state, the twenty-one Roman 
"trilx's" (p. 1()0) were increased gradnallx to thirty-five, — four 
in the citN-, th(> rest in adjoining (hstiiets. .\t first th(>se were 

101 



CITIZENS AND SUBJECTS 165 

real divisions of territory ; but, once enrolled in a given tribe, 
a man remained a member, no matter where he lived, and his 
son after him. As new communities were given citizenship, they 
were enrolled m the old thirty-fide tribes. Each tribe had one 
vote in the Assembly. 

Rome and her citizens owned directly one third the land of Rights and 

Italy. All Roman citizens, too, had certain valued rights. ^}^}^^^ ^^ 

citizens 
Under the head of private rights, they might (1) acquire prop- 
erty and (2) intermarry in any of Rome's possessions. Their 
public rights included the right (1) to vote in the Assembly 
of the Tribes, (2) to hold any office, and (3) to appeal to the 
Assembly if condemned to death or to bodily punishment. 

In return for these privileges, the citizens furnished half the 
army of Italy and paid all the direct taxes. 

Outside the Roman state was subject-Italy, in three main The 
classes, Latin colonies. Prefectures, and ''Allies.'^ Highest **^°®. 
in privilege among these stood the Latins. This name did not 
apply now to the old Latin towns (nearly all of which had become 
municipia), but to thirty-five colonies of a new kind, sent out 
far beyond Latium {after 338) from Rome's landless citizens. 

. These colonists were not granted full citizenship, as were the 
Roman colonies, but only the "Latin right." That is, their citi- 
zens had the private rights of Romans ; and they might acquire 
full public rights also, and become Roman citizens in all respects, 
by removing to Rome and enrolling in one of the tribes, hi local 
affairs, the Latin eoloiiies had full self-government, like the Roman 
colonies and the municipia. 

Most numerous of all the inhabitants of Italy stood the mass The 
of subject Greeks, Italians, and Etruscans, under the general " ^1^®^ " 
name of Italiari Allies. These cities differed greatly in con- 
dition among themselves. Each one was bound to Rome by 
its separate treaty, and these treaties varied widely. None of 
the "Allies" had either the private or public rights of Romans, 
and. they were isolated jealously one from another; but in general 
they bore few burdens and enjoyed local self-government and 
Roman protection. 



IGO 



UXITKD ITALY AFTKIi 2i\(\ B.C. 



Tlu- class of Pr(Jictuns consisted of tlircc or four coiKiiicrcd 
towns, too (Iccj) offenders to warrant thcni in asking either the 
"Latin ri^iil " or "alHance." Tluij had no .sdj'-govcrnimnf. 
Alone of all citi<s in Italy, their local government was adminis- 
tered for tlicni \)\ pnj'rrt.s sent out from Rome. 




>, -Imwiii^' the <iri^Mii;il paxt'int'iit . 



Thus Komc cauti«»uslv Iml steadily mcorpornit d eon(|uests 
into herscH" on a l)asis of c(|ual rights, wliile over her remaining 
subjects slic held do!iiini(»n Ky h<r justice and. e\(>n more, hy a 
wise ftth rdfioH of local customs. 1 taly had i)ccomc a contcderacy 
under a queen city. 



ROMAN ROADS 167 

At the same time Rome sternly isolated the subject commu- 
nities. Her '' Allies " had no connection with one another except 
through the head city. Even the famous roads that marked her 
dominion " all led to Rome." Moreover, she took skillful advan- 
tage of the grades of inferiority she had created to foment jealous- 
ies. In politics as in war, her policy was ^'Divide and conquer.^' 

The Roman roads were bonds of union. Rome began that Roman 
magnificent system in 312 B.C. by building the Via Ajrpia ^°^^^ 
to new possessions in Campania. This was the work of the 
censor Appius Claudius — the man who, old and blind, after- 
ward held Rome firm against Pyrrhus and haughtily claimed 
for Rome the dominion of all Italy (p. 162) . 

Nothing was permitted to obstruct the course of these high- 
ways. Mountains were tunneled ; rivers were bridged ; marshes 
were spanned by viaducts of masonry. The construction 
was slow and costly. First the workmen removed all loose 
soil down to some firm strata, preferabl}^ the native rock. Then 
was laid a layer of large stones, then one of smaller, and at 
least one more of smaller ones still, — all bound together — some 
two feet in thickness — by an excellent cement. The top was 
then leveled carefully and paved smoothly with huge slabs 
of rock fitted to one another with the greatest nicety. Remains 
of these roads in good condition to-day still "mark the lands 
where Rome has ruled." 

Under the kings the army was similar to the old Dorian organ- The army 
ization, — a dense hoplite array, usually eight deep. In Greece 
the next step was to deepen and close the ranks still further 
into the massive phalanx. In Italy, instead, they were broken 
up into three successive lines, and each line was divided further 
into small companies, forming the flexible I egio7i. 

The phalanx depended upon long spears. While it remained 
unbroken and could present its front, it was invulnerable ; but 
if disordered by uneven ground, or if taken in flank, it was 
doomed. The legion used the hurling javelin to disorder the 
enemy's ranks before immediate contact (as moderns have used 
musketry), and the famous Roman short sword for close combat 



168 



UNITED ITALY AFTER 2(i() B.C. 



(as moderns ha\ c used the hayoiu't). Fl('xil)ility, individuality, 
and constancy took the place of the collect i\-e lance tlirust of the 
unwieldy phalanx. 

The legion numbered ahout five thousand, and was made u]) 
of Roman citizens. Each legion was accompanied hy ahout 



^f.^ 








IT AT.V 
About 200 B.C. 

TO SHOW 



/J s, Roman Colonies * 
^i .3 and lionian Roads ===• 




five thousand men from the Allies. These (iiLvilidrirs served 
on the wings of the legion as light-armed troops, and as cavalry. 
The camp The Roman camp was characteristic of a people whose 

colonies were garrisons. Where the army encamped — even if 
for only a single night — there grew uj) in an hour a fortified 
city, with earth walls and regular streets. Tiiis system allowed 



ROMAN GOVERNMENT 169 

the Romans often "to conquer by sitting still," declining 
or giving battle at their own option; while, too, when they 
did fight, they did so with a fortified and guarded refuge in 
their rear. The importance of these camps, as the sites of cities 
over Europe, is shown by the frequency of the Roman word castra 
(camp) in English place-names, as in Chester, Rochester, Win- 
chester, Dorchester, Manchester. 

II. THE GOVERNMENT 
The officers of chief dignity in the Roman Republic, from The curule 
least to greatest, were : Aediles (two), with oversight over police °®^^^ 
and public works ; Praetors (two), with the chief judicial power ; 
Consuls (two), leaders in war and in foreign policy; Censors 
(two), with power to appoint and to degrade Senators, and 
with supreme oversight over morals; Dictator (one, and in 
critical times only). These five were called curule offices, 
because the holders kept the right to use the curule chair — the 
ivory " throne " of the old kings. There were also eight quaestors 
(in charge of the treasury and with some judicial power) and 
the ten tribunes. 

A new aristocracy had appeared. Each curule official, l\v The new 

law, handed down to his descendants the right to keep upon ^riTJcracy 

the walls of their living rooms the wax masks of ancestors, 

and to carry them in a public procession at the funeral of a 

member of the family. A chief part of such a funeral was an 

oration commemorating the virtues and deeds of the ancestors, 

whose images were present (Davis' Readings, II, No. 19). 

Families with this privilege were called nobles ("the known"). 

Before the year 300 B.C., the nobles began to be jealous of 

the admission of "new men" to their ranks; and their united 

influence soon controlled nearly all curule elections in favor of 

some member of their own order. To mak^ this easier, they 

secured a law fixing the order in which these offices could be 

attained : no one could be elected aedile until he had held the 

quaestorship, nor praetor till he had been aedile, nor consul 

till he had been praetor. Then the nobles had to watch only 

the election of quaestors. And since senators now had to be 



170 



TIIM KOMAX KKPUBLIC 



app()int(ul from cx-oilicials, "nobles" liccaiiic ((iniNalcnt to 
" t\\v senatorial order." 

The Scndtr //v/.v rtdlli/ ihc a u id in a force in the (jovcruinrtii. 
It contained the wisdom and experience of Rome. The })ressure 
of constant and dangiM'ons wars, and the f^rowin^^ c()mj)]exity 
of foreign rchitions excn in j)eace, made it ine\ital)le that this 
far-seein<i-, C()mi)act, ex})erienced hody should assume authority 
which in theory helong-ed to the clumsy, inexperienced Assembly. 
" Rome hccdmr a complcff (in.stocraci/ irith dduocroiic forms.'' 
No consul would think of bringing a law before the ])e()j)le 
without the previous api>roval of the Senate (so that indirectly 
that body, rather tlum tlie Assembly, had become the real 
legislature). No officer would draw money from the treasury 
without its consent. It declared and managed wars. It 
received ambassadors and made alliances. And certainly, 
for over a hundred years, by its sagacity and energy, this "as- 
sembly of kings" (as the ambassador from Pyrrhus called it) 
justified its usurpation. 

ill. ROMAN SOCIETY AT ITS BEST 

From .'^()7 to about 200 h.c. is the period of greatest Roman 
vigor. The old class distinctions had died out, and the new aris- 
tocracy of office was still in its "age of service." There was 
soon to come a new struggle between rich and poor — but this 
had not yet begun. 

The Roman citizens, in the main, patrician or j)lei)eian by 
descent, were still yeomen farmers, who worked hard and livt^l 
])lainly. The raj)id gain in territory after 'MM made it possible to 
turn the city ])oor into land-owners — in a colony if not near 
Rome. Each farmer tilled his few acres with his own hands and 
the hel]) of his own sons. Every eiglith d;iy h(^ camt* to the 
city with a load for "market," — wheat, barhy, garden \ cge- 
tabh^s, fruit, horses, cattle, slice]), or hogs. 

There was little wealth and little extreme i)()verty. Mouius 
Curio, the C()n(iueror of the Samnites and of Pyrrhus, was a 
peasant. Plutarch tells us that, though lie ha<l "triumphed" 
thrice, he continued to li\e in a cottage on a little three-acre 



A SIMPLE SOCIETY TO 200 B.C. 171 

plot which he tilled with his own hands. Here once some 
Samnite ambassadors found him dressing turnips in the chimney 
corner, when they came to offer him a large present of gold. 
Curio refused the gift : " A man," said he, "who can be content 
with this supper hath no need of gold ; and I count it glory, not 
to possess wealth, but to rule those who do." This sober 
history quite matches the less trustworthy legend of Cincinnatus 
of the fifth century, called from the plow on his three-acre 
farm to become dictator and save Rome from a hostile inva- 
sion, and returning to the plow again, all in sixteen days. 

In the city itself, as no doubt in all Italian towns, the crafts- Craft gilds 
men were organized in "unions" (gilds). These gilds were 
not for the purpose of raising wages, as with us, nor mainly 
for improving the character of the work, as in later centuries 
in Europe. They were associations for friendly intercourse 
and mutual helpfulness among the members, and they illustrate 
the extraordinary Roman capacity for teamwork, — in contrast 
to the individuality of Greek life. 

Commerce (trade with other lands) paid huge profits to those Commerce 

successful adventurers who did not too often lose vessels by ship- ™^^®^ ^®^ 

money- 
wreck or pirates. The few rich Romans long disdained the kings 

business for themselves ; but they early began to use their 

capital in it through their slaves or former slaves ; and toward 

200 B.C. their profits were building up a new class of merchants 

and money-kings. 

The oldest Roman word for money (pecunia, from which Roman 

comes our pecuniary) came from the word for herd (pecus). °^°°^y 

This points to a time when payments were made chiefly in 

cattle (p. 150). About 400 B.C., rude blocks of copper were 

stamped with the figure of an ox; and before 300 B.C., under 

the influence of Magna Graecia, Rome adopted true copper coins 

in the form of circular disks. Even earlier, the Romans had 

''estimated'' in copper (aes), counting by the pound weight ; and 

now they made their copper coins each one twelfth of a pound (an 

old Babylonian unit of weight). Such a coin was an "uncia," 

— one ounce (Troy weight). Silver was not used either for 

money or for household purposes until after the union of Italy. 



172 



TUK ROMAN REPUBLIC 



Science and 
learning 



'V\w lioiisr had added rooms on sides and rear, and o])enin^'s for 
windows; but it was still excecdinf,dy simple. A plain tahle, 
wooden couches, and a few stools ;ind simple cooking utensils 
comprised the furniture. Artificial warmth and li^ht were 
.secured by "braziers" and lamps, like those of the Greeks. 
The Roman took his chief meal at midday. In early times, 
the main food was a "porridge" of ground meal boiled in water. 
Pork, especially in the form of sausage, was the favorite meat. 
Bread, from ground wheat or barley, was baked in flat, round 
cakes. Water or milk was the common drink, but wine mixed 
with water was coming into general use, after the fashion of the 
Greeks. The Romans who conquered Pyrrhus were a frugal, 
temperate people. 

Dress was as simple as the food. The Roman kept the 
primitive loin cloth of linen. Over this he drew a short-sleeved 
woolen shirt (tiiuic) falling to the knees. This made the common 
dress of the house, workshop, and field. In public the Roman 
wore an outer garment — a white woolen blanket, thrown 
about him in graceful folds. This was the famous toga, bor- 
rowed from tlie old Etruscans. Women wore a long and a 
short tunic, and, for the street, a blanket-wTap. Foot-gear 
was like that of the Greeks. Stockings and hats were alike un- 
known. Members of the senatorial families wore broad gold 
rings. 

Tntil se\-en, the children were in tlie motlier's care. After 
tliat age, l)oys went to a ])ri\ate scliool, taught usually by som(^ 
Greek slave, where they learned to n^ad, to write, and, in a lim- 
ited degree, to compute^ with Roman numerals. The only text- 
book was the Twel\-e Tables, which wvvv learncMJ by luNirt. 
Physical training was found in athletic games in the Campus 
Martins (]). If)! ), where the young Romans contendtMl in running, 
wrestling, and in the use of the s))ear, sword, and jaxclin. 

Literature, under (ir(>ek influence, was just beginning at the 
close of the j)eriod. Roads, bridges, and acjueducts were built 
in the last half of the |)eriod on a magnificent scale, and the 
u.se of th(^ round arch was so de\('lo])e(l that we often s])eak 
of it as " the Roman arch." 



LIFE AND WORK 173 

Undue praise has been given sometimes to the semi-barbaric 
excellence of early Rome. The Roman was haughty, obedient 
to law, self-controlled ; but too often he was also coarse, cruel, 
and rapacious. The finest thing in his character was the 
willingness to sink personal or party advantage for the public 
weal. Next to this, and allied to it, is the capacity for team- 
w^ork. Roman history, up to this point, is not the history of a 
few brilliant leaders : it is the story of a people. 

We have seen a village of rude shepherds and peasants grow a summary: 
into a city-state and then (by 264 B.C.) into the queen city of Rome's 
united Italy. During the next hundred years Italy was to tions 
organize the fringes of the three continents bordering the 
Mediterranean into one Graeco-Roman society. But it was 
not Rome's genius in war, great as that was, which made the 
world Roman. It was her political wisdom and her organizing 
power. As Greece stands for art and intellectual culture, so 
Rome stands for government and law. A little later her poet 
Vergil wrote : 

*' Others, I grant, indeed, shall with more delicacy mold the breath- 
ing brass; from marble draw the features to the life; plead causes 
better; describe with a rod the courses of the heavens, and explain 
the rising stars. To rule the nations with imperial sway be thy care, 
Roman. These shall be thy arts : to impose terms of peace, to spare 
the humbled, and to crush the proud. " 



niAPTER XTX 

THE WINNING OF THE WORLD, 264 146 B.C. 

I. KXPANSIOX IX THE WEST 

The five 111 2()4 u.c. Italy was one of five ^rcat Mediterranean states. 

world- Alexander tlie (ireat luulbeen dead nearlv sixt\' vears, and tlie 

powers in ... . " ' * . 

264 B C. dominion of the eastern Mediterranean world was divided 

l)etween the three jjjreat Greek kin^lonis, Syria, Egypt, and 
Macedonia, with their nunierons satellites. In the western 
^Mediterranean, ('arthatj:e had held sway. Between East and 
West now stood forth Roman Italy, ready first to seize the West. 
Carthage Carthage was an ancient Phoenician colony on the finest 

harbor in North Africa. Her government, in form, was a 
repnhlic, somewliat like Rome, hut in reality it was a narrow 
oligarchy controlled by a few wealthy families. She was now 
at the height of her power, and the richest city in the world. 
She had built up a vast empire, including North Africa, Sardinia, 
Corsica, half of Sicily, and the coasts of Spain. In Africa alone 
she ruled three hundred cities, and her territory merged into 
the desert where tributary nomads roamed. The western Medi- 
terranean slie regarded as a Punic' lake: foreign sailors caught 
trespassing there were cast into the sea. Rut the Greeks of 
South Italy had traded in those waters for five hundred years; 
and Rome, now mistress and protector of those Greek cities, was 
bound to defend their trading rights against the ( ^irthaginian 
closed door. 

The strength of ('arthage lay in her wealth and her na\y, but 
her army was a motley mass of nuTcenaries. Her Roman foes 
represented her as wanting in honesty, and their epithet, " Punic 
faith" is still a synonym for treacher\-. But Rome wrote the 

' "Punic" is another form for " PhotMiicinn." and i.s nst'd as a .short<^r ad- 
jective for "C'arthacinian." 

174 



WARS WITH CARTHAGE 175 

history ; and, even so, the charge of faithlessness holds more 
clearly against Rome. 

The occasion for the First Punic War was found in Sicily. ^^^^^^^ 
The struggle lasted 23 years, and left Rome mistress of that ^^^_^^^ 
island. Immediately after the peace, too, by a base minghng B.C. 
of violence and treachery, Rome seized from Carthage the islands 
of Sardinia and Corsica. (Then in 222 she completed her con- 
quest of Cisalpine Gaul up to the crescent wall of- the Alps.) 

The Second Punic War is known as "the War with Hanni- The^SeoMid 
bal." The most brilliant Carthaginian general in the first war ^^"g""^^^ ^'' 
had been Hamilcar, surnamed Barca ("the hghtning"). From B.^J^^^^^ 
Rome's high-handed treachery in Sardinia, Hamilcar imbibed Hannibal ") 
a deathless hatred for that state, and began to prepare for 
another conflict. To offset the loss of the great Mediterranean 
islands, he sought to extend Carthaginian dominion over Spain. 
The mines of that country, he saw, would furnish the needful 
wealth ; and its hardy tribes, when disciplined, would make an 
infantry which might meet even the legions of Rome. 

When Hamilcar was about to cross to Spain, in 236, he swore Hanmbal 
his son Hannibal at the altar to eternal hostility to Rome. '^ ^^'"^ 
Hannibal was then a boy of nine years. He followed Hamilcar 
to the wars, and, as a youth, became a dashing cavalry officer 
and the idol of the soldiery. He used his camp leisure to store 
his mind with the culture of Greece. At twenty-six he suc- 
ceeded to the command in Spain, where he had already won the 
devotion and love of his fickle, mercenary troops. 

Hamilcar had made the rich south of Spain a Carthaginian 
province. Hannibal rapidly carried the frontier to the Ebro, 
collected a magnificent army of over a hundred thousand men, 
and besieged Saguntum, an ancient Greek colony, which had 
already sought Roman alliance. Now, in alarm and anger, 
Rome declared war (218 B.C.). 

Rome had intended to take the offensive. But, with auda- Hanmbal 
cious rapidity, Hannibal in five months had crossed the Pyrenees '^^f ^' 
and the Rhone, fighting his way through the Gallic tribes ; forced 
the unknown passes of the Alps, under conditions that made it 
a feat paralleled only by Alexander's passage of the Hindukush ; 



17( 



/o 



ROME WIXS TIIK WKST 



Victories ; 
Ticinus. 
Trebia. 
Trasimene 



Fabius 
dictator 



Cannae 



Fidelity of 
Rome s 
Allies 



Except 
Capua and 
Syracuse 



and, Icax iii^^ the Ixmcs of tlircc fourths of his army Ix-twccn 
the Ebro and Po, startled Italy hy apjx'ariii^^ in ("isalpinc Gaul, 
with 2(), ()()() " heroic shadows." 

With tlu'st' *' cnuiciatcd scarecrows" Hannibal swiftly de- 
stroyed two hastily gathered Roman armies — at the llcitiu.s 
and at the Trchia. Then the recently pacified Gallic tribes 
rallied turbulently to swell his ranks. The next spring he 
crossed the Apennines, ambushed a Roman army of 4(),()()() 
men, blinded with morning fog, near Lake Tramminc, and 
annihilated it, and carried fire and sword through Italy. 

Quintus Fabius Maximus was now named dictator, to save 
Rome. That wary old general adopted the wise policy of 
delay ("Fabian policy") to wear out Hannibal. He woidd 
not give battle ; but he followed close at the Carthaginian's 
heels, from place to place. Even Hanni})al could not catch 
Fabius imawares ; and he did not dare to attack the intrenched 
Roman camps. But he had to win victories to draw tlie Italian 
"Allies" from Rome, or he would have to flee from Italy. 
So far, not a city in Italy had opened its gates. 

But in Rome many people nun'umred imj)atiently, nick- 
naming Fabius Cuiictdior (the Laggard) ; and the following 
summer the new consids were given 90,000 men — by far the 
largest army Rome had ever put in the field, and several times 
Hannibal's army — w ith orders to crush the invader. 

The result was the battle of ('anna(> — "a carnival of cold 
steel, a butchery, not a battle." IIannil)al lost (iOOO men. 
Rome lost (iO,()00 ^\vAi\ and LM).0()() prisoners. A consul, a 
fourth of the senators, nearly all the officers, jind o\cr a fifth 
of the fighting poj)ulation of the city ])erished. Hannibal 
sent home a bushel of gold rings from the hands of fallen 
Roman nobles. 

Kx'en this victory yielded little fruit. The mountain tribes 
of the south, eager for plunder, di<l join Hannibal. ;is did one 
Italian v\\\\ ('ii[>ii(i. Syracuse, too, renounced its Roman 
alliance, and joined its ancient enemy Carthage. But the 
other cities — colonies, Latins, or .\llies — closed their gates 
against him as resolutely as Rome itself, — and so gave mar- 




THE MEDITERRANEAN LANDS 

AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 

SECOND PUNIC WAR 



SCALE OF MILES 



60 100 200 300 400 



Roman Poesvesiona and Allies 
CartliiitfiDian •' " 
Maoi'<lonian r> " \ 
Hiinnilial's Rout* 1— ■• 



Fn-e Greek SUtes 
Syrian rosachsions 
Egyptian • • 



i 



\ 



N.B. The Kin 
a much 
than cai 



LonyituJe Wcat 



6 Longitude 10 



East 15 




E the Seleucldae had 
• extent to the East 
wn on this map. 
I 



20 



Greenwich 



WARS WITH CARTHAGE 



177 



velous testimony to the excellence of Roman rule and to the 
national spirit it had fostered. 

A third of the adult males of Italy had fallen in battle within Roman 
three years, or were in camp, so that all industry was demoral- f^^i^ f ^t 
ized. But Rome's greatness showed grandly in that hour 
of gloom. With splendid tenacity she refused even to receive 





Coin of Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, long an ally of Rome against 

Carthage. 



Hannibal's envoys or to consider his moderate proposals for 
peace. Nor would she ransom prisoners. Much as she needed 
her soldiers back, she preferred to teach her citizens that they 
ought at such a time to die for the Republic rather than sur- 
render. Taxes were doubled, and the rich gave cheerfully, 
even beyond these crushing demands. The days of mourning 
for the dead were shortened. Not a man w^as called back 
from Sicily or Spain. Instead Rome sent out new armies to those 
places; and, by enrolling slaves, old men, boys, and the criminals 
from the prisons (arming them with the sacred trophies in the 
temples), she managed to put two hundred and fifty thousand 
troops into the field. 

Hannibal could maintain himself indefinitely in Italy. But Lack of 
he made no more headway. He had not force enough to capture ^o^*^®^ 
any important walled town. So his only possible chances Rome's 1 
for success lay in arousing a general Mediterranean war against 
Rome, or in receiving strong reinforcements from Carthage or 
Spain. Philip V of Macedonia did ally himself with Hannibal, 
but he acted timidly and too late. Carthage showed a strange 



character of 
the war 



178 ROME WINS TIIK WKST 

apathy wlirii \ ictory was within licr ^nas]), and even allowed 
Romr to keep command of the sea, without a struggle. 
Syracuse Meantime Home besieged Syracuse by land and sea, and 

punished .jj.j^.j. ^,jj.^.^. ^.^„^j.^^ ^^^^^j^ j^ 1^^. ^^^^j.j^^ ^212 B.C.), and, for a time, 

wijH'd it from the map. Works of art, accumulated through 
many centuries, were destroyed or carried away as ])lunder; 
and th<' city ncNcr recoxered its old place in culture, power, 
or commerc(>. Indeed Rome's barbarous cruelty to Syracuse 
was due, in no small measure, to her greedy wish to seize for 
her.self the rich trade of the fated city. (The siege is memorable 
also for the scientific inventions of Archimedes, used in tlie 
defense. The philosopher himself was killed during the sack of 
the city. See Davis' Readings, IT, No. 27.) 
Changed In Ital\- itself, Rome fell V)ack upon iron constancy and stead- 

fast caution. The war became a long series of wasting sieges 
and marchings and counter marchings. Hannibal's genius 
shone as unsurpassed as ever, earning him from modern military 
critics tlie title, "Father of Strategy"; but he found no more 
chance for diizzling \ictories. Meantime his African and 
Spanish veterans died off, and slowly the Romans learned 
from him how to wage war. 

For thirteen years after Cannae Hannibal maintained himself 
in Italy witliout reinforcement in men or monex-, — always 
winning a battle when he could engage the enemy in the field, — 
and directing o])erations as best he might in Spain, Sicily, Mace- 
donia, and Africa. Hut it was a war waged by one suj)reme 
genius against the most powerful and resolute nation in the 
world — and the genius was defeated after a sixteen years' war. 
Hannibal One more dramatic scene marked the struggle in Ital\. The 

Romans had besieged ("aj)ua. In a daring attem])t to relieve 
his ally, Hannibal marched to the xcry walls of Rome, ravaging 
the fields about the city. The Roiumus, liowexcr, were not to 
be enticed into a rasli engagement, nor could the army around 
Capua l)e drawn from its j)rey. Tlie only result of Hannibal's 
desperate stroki' was the fruitless fright he gave R<Mne, — such 
that for generations Roman mothers stilled their childn^n by the 
terror-bearing phrase, "Hannii)al at the Gates!" Roman 



at the 
Gates 



WARS WITH CARTHAGE 179 

stories relate, however, that citizens were found, even in that 
hour of fear, to show a defiant confidence by buying eagerly at a 
public sale the land where the invader lay encamped. Hannibal Capua 
finally drew off, and Capua fell, — to meet a fate more harsh P^^ished 
even than that of Syracuse. Its leading men were massa- 
cred ; most of the rest of the population were sold as slaves ; 
and colonies of Roman veterans were planted on its lands. 

Hannibal's one remaining chance lay in reinforcements by Rome's 
land from his brother Hasdrubal, whom he had left in charge ^*'"^®^* 
in Spain. But for year after year, in spite of some great vic- 
tories, Hasdrubal had been checked by the overwhelming forces 
Rome sent against him. Finally, in 208, he did elude the Roman 
Scipio. Rome's peril was never greater than when this second 
son of Barca crossed the Alps with 56,000 veteran soldiers. 
If the two Carthaginian armies joined, Hannibal could march 
at will through Italy, — and leading Latin colonies had already 
given Rome notice that they could not much longer endure 
the ravages of the war. 

Rome put forth its supreme effort, and threw 150,000 men Victory 
between the two Carthaginian armies. By chance, a messenger ?1 *J^® 
from Hasdrubal to his brother was captured, and his plans 
discovered, while Hannibal was left ignorant of his approach. 
The opportunity was used to the full. The consul, Claudius 
Nero, with audacity worthy of Hannibal himself, left a small 
part of his force to deceive that leader, and hurrying northward 
with the speed of life and death, joined the other consul and 
fell upon Hasdrubal with crushing numbers at the Metaurus. 
The ghastly head of his long-expected brother, flung into his 
camp with true Roman brutality, was the first notice to Han- 
nibal of the ruin of his cause. (On all occasions, Hannibal had 
given chivalrous treatment to captives, and honorable burial 
to dead Roman generals.) 

Hannibal still remained invincible in the mountains of south- Scipio 
ern Italy. But Rome now carried the war into Africa. After war"hfto^^ 
Hasdrubal left Spain, Publius Cornelius Scipio, the Roman Africa 
general there, rapidly subdued the whole peninsula, and, in 
204, he persuaded the Senate to send him with a great army 



180 



ROME WINS THE IvVST 



Hannibal s 
one and 
fatal defeat 
at Zama 



Carthage 
blotted 
out. ' 146 
B.C. 



against ("artha<i(' it.sclf. Two years later, to meet this peril, 
Carthage rvcallrd Ihinnihdl. Tliat <;reat leader ()l)eyed sadly, 
"leaving the country of his enemy," says Li\y, "with more 
regret than many an exile has left his own." 

The same year (202 B.C.) the struggle closed with Hannibal's 
first and only defeat, at the battle of Zama (Davis' Readings, 
II, No. 28). Carthage lay at the mercy of the victor, and sued 
for peace. She gave up Spain and the islands of the western 
Mediterranean ; surrendered her war elephants and all her 
ships of war save ten ; paid a huge war indemnity, whicli was 
intended to keep her poor for many years ; and became a de- 
pendent ally of Rome, promising to wage no war without 
Roman consent. Sci])io received the proud surname Afri- 
can us. 

Forty years later there was a Third Punic AVar, marked ])y 
black Roman perfidy. Carthage was now harndess. But 
Roman fear was cruel and her commercial envy was rapacious. 
For years the narrow-minded but /.ealous C(do, a leader in the 
Roman Senate, closed every speech, no matter what the theme, 
with the phrase *' Delrnda. est Carthago'' (Carthage must be 
blotted out). More (luietly l)Ut excn more efi"eeti\-ely the 
Roman merchant class strove to the same end, to i)re\-ent 
( 'arthage from re\iving its ancient trade. 

("arthage was cautious, e\-eii al)jeet ; l)ut at last ])y a long 
series of ])ersecutions and treacheries Rome forced war upon her. 
After a four years' heroic resistance, the Roman legions forced 
tlieir way oxer the walls. Vov iiiaiix days the city was gi\-en 
up to pillage. Then, by express orders from Rome, it was burned 
to the ground, and its site was ])loW(>(l u]), sown to salt, and 
cursed (\4i) H.c). To carr> out this crime fell to the lot of 
one of the pinvst and noblest characters Rome ever j)ro(luced, 
— Puhlius Seipio Aemilianus, the nej)hew and a(lo])te(l grandson 
of Seij)io Africanus, known himself as Afrieanus th< ] (uniger. 
As he watched the smoldering ruins (they burned for seventeen 
days) with his friend Polyl)ius the historian. Seii)io s])oke his 
fear that some (la\ Rome nn'ght sulVer a like fate, and he was 
heard to repeat Homer's lines : 



PLATE XXIV 





•■^^i^^^*'^'^''^' 


Bb 


^gg 


;^--*.j^ 


m 






J 




;.:,* 

%. ^-r^^--^":: 


-" - ; 


'^iCf^... 



''*^^A^v^^'.'«#" Naples 



Pompeii, as the excavations show it. A large part of our knowledge con- 
cerning the life of Roman Italy is due to the rediscovery of this buried 
city. Vesuvius (shown in the background) was supposed to be an 
extinct volcano, but in 79 a.d. it belched forth in terrible eruption, bury- 
ing two cities and many villages in ashes and lava. Eighteen hundred 
years later, by the chance digging of a well, the site of Pompeii, the 
larger of the two cities, was re- 
discovered. In recent years it 
has been carefully excavated ; and 
to-day a visitor can walk through 
the streets of an ancient city, 
viewing perfectly preserved 
houses, shops, temples, baths, 
ornaments, and tools of the men 
of that day when the volcanic 
flood came upon them. In the 
Art Museums of our larger Amer- 
ican cities there are interesting 
Pompeian remains, and sometimes 
" reconstructed " models of houses 
and temples. 




COMMERCIAL GREED 181 

'Yet come it will, the day decreed by fate, 
The day when thou, Imperial Troy, must bend, 
And see thy warriors fall, thy glories end." 



II. THE WIXXINXx OF THE EAST 

Immediately after the Second Punic "War, Rome began to 
extend her authority in the Greek East and in eleven years 
(200-190 B.C.) she set up a virfual protectorate ^ over all the realms 
of Alexander's successors. For this there was much excuse 
in the weakness and disorder of the degenerate Eastern states 
(p. 142). That vast region had become politically "an intoler- 
able hubbub," from which men's eyes turned with hope " to 
the stable and well-ordered Republic of the ^Yest." 

But Rome did not stop with protectorates. Gradually she Rome 
was led to seize territory in the civilized East, as before in the ^^q^q^_^ 
barbarous West. Appetite for power grew with its exercise ; torates into 
a class of ambitious nobles craved new wars of conquest for the P'"°^^°^®^ 
sake of glory and power; and the growing class of merchants 
and money lenders (who now indirectly dominated the govern- 
ment) hungered raveningly for conquests in order to secure 
more special privileges in the form of trade monopolies and the 
management of finances in new provinces. 

Two or three features only of this long conquest can be noted 
here. 

1. The fiexil:)le legion proved incomparably superior to the 
unwieldy phalanx. 

2. Rome so filled her coffers from the plunder of the East 
that thereafter she never taxed her citizens. Besides this public 
plunder, Roman generals regularly paid their soldiers by the sack 
of helpless rich cities — one Roman hero turning over to a 
ruffian soldiery seventy civilized cities in one campaign. 

3. In 146 B.C. — the same year that saw the destruction of 
Carthage — Rome basely goaded Greece into rebellion, and 
then destroyed Corinth — another of the commercial centers 

^ That is, Rome controlled their foreign relations, and. on occasion, would 
step in to maintain internal order — much as the United States stands to 
Cuba to-dav. 



182 



HOME THE WOULD MISTRESS 



The world 

Graeco- 

Roman 



Latin West 
and Greek 
East 



whose prospcrit.N- callrd out tlic envy of Roman nirrcliants. 
The fity was luirncd ; its site j)l()\V('(l and cursed ; and its 
people murdered or sold into sla\(M-y. The art-treasures l)eeame 
the phmder of tlie Roman state, hut much was h)st. Polyl)ius 
saw soldiers playing at dice, amid the smoking ruins, on the 
])alntings of tlie greatest masters. 

In 2()4 B.C. Rome liad been one of five Great Powers fp. 174). 
In 14(), she was the .vo/r Great Power. Cartilage and Mace- 
donia were provinces. Egypt and Syria liad i)ec()me protec- 
torates and were soon to he provinces. All the smaller states 
had been brought within the Roman "sphere of influence." 
Rome held the heritage of Alexander as well as that of ( "arthage. 
The civilizi'd world had become a Graeco-Roman world, under 
Roman sway. 

But Rome\s relations with the two sections of her empire were 
width/ different. To the people of the West, despite terrible 
cruelties in war, she brought better order and higher ci\ ilization 
than they had known. The Western world became Latin. 
But to the last, the East remained Greek, not Latin, in language, 
customs, and thought. The Adriatic continued to divide the 
Latin and Greek civilizations when the two shared the world 
under the sway of Rome. 

Exercise. — Make a table of dates in parallel columns to show 
relations in time between Greek and Roman historv — to 14() B.C. 



B.C. CiREKCE R.r. RoME 

510. Kxpulsionof.Vthenian tyrants. r)()0(?). Expulsion of the kings. 
492. .\t tack by Persia. 494. First secession by the plehs : 

tribunes, 
etc. etc. 

Special Report, from lil)rary material : the story of IlanniWal after 
Zama. 



CHAPTER XX 
STRIFE BETWEEN RICH AND POOR, 146-49 B.C. 

Rome had 'won the world but lost her own soul.' During Decline in 
her wars of conquest, she sank steadily to lower levels in morals "^^y^^^ ^"® 
and in industry at home. The Second Punic War alone cost 
Italy a million lives. These included the flower of the Roman 
citizens, — tens of thousands of high-souled youth, who, in 
peace, would have served the state through a long lifetime. The 
Italian race was made permanently poorer by that terrible 
hemorrhage. 

Conquest and war had hastened, too, the growth of a capitalist Conquest 
class. By 14^^, Rome had become the money center of the world. ^^^^^^. 
The capitalists became known as equites, or "knights." They class 
formed a new and larger aristocracy of wealth just below the 
old senatorial aristocracy of office and birth. Very comnlonly 
they were organized in partnerships and stock companies, 
and the Via Sacra, along which such companies had many 
offices, was the first Wall Street. Some of these combinations 
monopolized the trade in important commodities — so as unduly 
to raise the price to the public. Olive oil was a necessary part Trade 
of Italian food, holding much more than the place that butter "^onopoUes 
does with us, and it had many other uses aside from food ; so 
about 200 B.C., we find an " oil trust " at Rome. A few years later 
the people were so distressed by a speculators' "corner" in 
grain that the government felt it necessary to prosecute certain 
"malefactors of great wealth" under an ancient law of the 
Twelve Tables against engrossing food. 

Ordinarily, however, the capitalists went their extortionate And their 
ways without rebuke. True, the Senatorial families were for- ^it^^t^e 
bidden by law to engage in foreign trade or in government Senate 
contracts ; but this attempt to keep the money power from 
influencing the government failed. The capitalists could not 

183 



184 



DKCAV OK THK ROMAN UKPUBLIC 



place incinl)(.TS of tlicir own class in the Senate, so as (lincfli/ to 
secure such policies as they desired ; l)ut none tlie less, indi- 
r(>ctly, they did control the j^o\ ernnient. 

This condition hrga)i with the ])atriotie action of the moneyed 
nuMi during the Second Punic War. \'ear l»y xcar, during that 
desperate struggle, the Senate had to liaxc immense sums of 
money such as the Roman treasury had ne\er })efore known. 
The only way then to get such sums cjuickly was from the 
rising companies of capitalists. These companies risked their 
w(vilth generously to build the fleets and equip the armies with 
which Hannihal was held in check. Thcti, in return, when the 
danger was past, they demanded and obtained special favors. 
In particular, they were allowed to take for their own the public 
lands, treating the land provision of the Licinian Laws as a 
dead letter. Sometimes tliey rei)aid themselves out of graft- 
ing contracts for supplies, or by overinsuring ships laden with 
army supplies, and then scuttling them, to collect the money 
from the government. Moreover the capitalists loaned money, 
perhaj)s without security, to ambitious young nobles to help 
them get elected to office ; and in return, when one of these 
nobles became a pro\incial goN'crnor, lie could easily iiuhice a 
rich city to give fat contracts to his favorite Ronum syndicate ; 
or he coidd enable the syndicate to squeeze from a debtor city 
the last ])enny of extortionate interest which its go\-ernment 
had foolishly or wrongfully j)r()mise(l. 

The syndicates were of no ])olitical ])arty. Lik(> "big busi- 
ness" in our own time, they sought to control or own excry 
l<*ader and party which might be able sometime to serve them. 
^b)reover, small shares of the stock companies were widely 
distributed, so that the whole middle class of citizens was 
interested in excry ])rosj)ect of enlarged di\i(l(Mids. Such 
citizens could be coimted upcui to support any project of the 
moneyed interests with their xotes in the .Vssembly and with 
their shoutings in the stnM-t mobs. 



Ever since the war wiili Pynhus, (li-eek culture from Magna 
Graecia had been more and more intluencini; Rome, ^^ith a 



PLATE XXV 




THKjJisds TiiKowKH (y;(.s(M/., This Kl<'ri..u.s iuarl)ltMuiu-;irtlu-d ill 

1H71 amid some ruins on the Esciuiliiic Hill. ;ind now at the Lanrelotti 
Palace in Rome) is a copy of a bronze by Myron (p. 121). probably 
celebrating some victor in the Olympian ^ames. (}ui(c probably this 
marble was plundered from some Greek city. 



RICH AND POOR 185 



few of the better minds, like the Scipios, this softened and refined Influence of 

Greek 
culture 



character into a lovable type; but as a rule it merely ve- ^^^ 



neered the native Roman coarseness and brutality. 

i\nd after the conquest of the Greek East, there was a new Simplicity 

inflow of Greek culture into Italv. Greek became the fashion- s^^^^ way to 

sumptuosity 

able language ; Greek marbles and pictures, plundered from 

Greek cities, adorned Roman palaces ; Greek slaves wrote plays 

to amuse Roman nobles. With the rich and the nobles, the 

old Roman simplicity gave way to sumptuous luxury. There 

was a growing display in dress, in rich draperies and couches 

and other house furnishings, in the celebration of marriages, 

at funerals, and at the table. (The Romans now adopted the Luxury of 

Greek custom of reclining at meals.) As the Roman Juvenal 

wrote later : " Luxury has fallen upon us — more terrible than 

the sword ; the conquered East has avenged herself by the gift 

of her vices." 

The houses of wealthy men had come to imitate the Greek 
type. Each fashionable house had its bathrooms, one or more, 
and its library. The pavement of the courts, and many floors, 
were ornamented with artistic mosaic. Walls were hung with 
costly, brilliantly colored tapestries ; and ceilings were richly 
gilded. Sideboards were beautiful with vases and gold and 
silver plate ; and in various recesses stood glorious statues, 
the booty from some Hellenic city. 

Besides his town house, each rich Roman had one or more The villa 
country houses (villas), with all the comforts of the city, — 
baths, libraries, museums, mosaic pavements, richly gilded 
ceilings, walls hung with brilliant tapestries, — while about 
the house spread parklike grounds with ornaniental shrub- 
bery and playing fountains and with beautiful marble forms 
gleaming through the foliage, and perhaps with fish ponds and 
vineyards. 

Commonly a villa was the center of a large farm ; and its 
magnificent luxury found a sinister contrast in the squalid huts, 
leaning against the walls of the villa grounds, in which slept the 
wretched slaves that tilled the soil and heaped up wealth for 
the noble master. Near by, in somewhat better quarters, lived 



186 



DECLINE OF TIIK liOMAX KKPrBLIC 



his skilled iirtisans — carpenters, smiths, and hakers. To care 
for the e()mj)le\ needs ot" liis suniptuons life, too, e\'ery man of 
wealth kept troops of hoiLschold skives — who slej)t on tlie ilooi-s 
of the lar<;e halls or in the open eoiirts. 

Alon^^side this i)ri\ate Inxnry, there ^yvw ilu prdctirc (lunmi) 
cdudiddics for office of entertaining the popuUiee with ,shoie,s, 
especially with (/Iddidtoridl (jdmes. These came, not from the 
Greek East, hut from nei.uhhors in Italy. Tliey were an old 
Etruscan custom, and were introduced into Rome about the 
beginning of the Punic Wars. A gladiatorial contest was a 
combat in which two men fought each other to the death for the 
amusement of the spectators. The practice was connected 
with ancient human sacrifices for the dead, and at Rome the 
first contests of this kind took place only at the funerals of 
nobles, but by degrees they became the most common of the 
])ublic amusements. 

Exaggerated copies of the Greek pul)lie baths apjx'ared in 
Rome. These became great public clubhouses, where the more 
voluptuous and idle citizens spent many hours a day. Besides 
the various rooms for baths, — hot, tepid, or cold, — a bathing 
house had its swimming j)ools, libraries, and nuiseums, and 
extensive gardens with delightfid shady walks. Before long, 
some of these were opened free to the poorer classes. 

For Rome now had a populace, — masses of hungry, unem- 
ployed men. This new class, like the new rich, was also a prod- 
uct of the Second Punic War. That war began the ruin of 
the small farmer in Italy. Over much of the ])eninsula the home- 
steads were hopelessly devastated ; and years of c(Mitinuous 
camp life, with ])lunder for ])ay, e()iTn|)te(l the simple habits 
of the yeoman class, so tiiat they di-iftcd to the city, to become 
a rabble. 

When the great wars were oxer, the rift between the new rich 
and the new j)oor went on widening. Rome confiscated vast 
tracts of land in lier contiuercd proxinces. and afterward sold 
them cheap to her own iioiiles; and often the ruined natives 
were glad to sell their remaining estates for a song. By such 
means, Roman nol)les became the owners of huge landed 



PLATE XXVI 





Two Views of the Remains of the Library of a Roman Villa near 
Tivoli. Walls so well preserved are uncommon ; but the foundations of 
such structures are scattered over Western and Southern Europe, and 
even to-day new finds of this sort are revealed by chance excavations. 



I 



RICH AND POOR 187 

properties in Sicily, Spain, Africa, and soon in the East, — all 
worked by cheap slave labor, which was supplied in abundance 
by the continuous wars of conquest. This new landlord class 
then supplied the Italian cities with grain from Sicily and North 
Africa cheaper than the Italian farmer could raise it on his more 
sterile soil. 

This did not hurt the large landlord in Italy : he turned to Ruin of 
cattle grazing or sheep raising, with slave labor. But the small *^® 
farmer had no such refuge. Ruined and dismayed, many of 
this class were ready to sell their farms ; and they found eager 
purchasers in the new capitalists, who especially desired pleasure 
resorts in Italy, Indeed, when the yeoman (in the more se- 
cluded districts) still clung stubbornly to his ancestral fields, 
a grasping landlord neighbor sometimes had recourse to force 
and fraud. Horace, court poet though he was (pp. 225-6), 
describes in pathetic words the helplessness of the poor farmer, 
whose cattle died mysteriously, or whose growing crops were 
trampled into the ground overnight, until he would sell at 
the rich man's price. Redress at law was usually too costly 
and too uncertain for a poor man in conflict with a rich 
one. 

In parts of Italy, especially in the north, many yeomen Emigration 
did hold their places. But over great districts, only large 
ranches could be seen, with half-savage slave herdsmen and 
their flocks, where formerly there had nestled numerous cottages 
on small, well-tilled farms, each supporting its independent 
family. As a class, the small farmers, once the backbone of 
Italian society, had disappeared. 

What became of this dispossessed yeomanry, from whom 
formerly had come conquerors, statesmen, and dictators? 
Many had foresight and energy enough to make their way at 
once to Gaul or Spain, while their small capital lasted. To 
Italy their strength was lost. But in the semi-barbarous west- 
ern provinces, for a century, a steady stream of sturdy peasant 
emigrants spread the old wholesome Roman civilization and 
confirmed the Roman rule, while at the same time they built 
up homes and fortunes for themselves. 



188 DECAY OK TIIK KOMAX KMI'IUK 

A city mob A whole class of people, liowexcr, eotild not lea\c their iiali\(' 

hind. 'V\\c ^I'eat Imlk of tlie ex-farmers merely drifted to the 
cities of Italy, and esi)ecially to the capital. If Italy had heen 
ji inanufac'turiiii;- country, they mi^dit finally haxc found a new 
kind of work in these city homes. Hut the Roman concjuests 
in the East j)re\ente(l this. In the Eastern ])ro\inees, mami- 
facturin^ of all sorts was nuieh more developed than in Italy; 
and now Roman merehants found it eheaj)er to import Oriental 
^oods than to huild up a system of factories at home. .Rome 
eeased to develo]) home resourees, and fed upon the provinces ; 
and such manufactyu'cs as remained were already in the hands 
of skilled Oriental slaves or freedmen. 

Thus the ex-farmers found no more employment in the eity 
than in the country. They soon spent the small sums they had 
reeeived for tlieir lands, and then they and their sons sank into 
a degraded eity rahhle. Hannibal had struck Rome a deadlier 
blow than hv vvvv knew. The rugged citizen farmers who had 
eoiKluered Pyrrhus were replaced, on one side, by an incapable, 
effeminate aristocracy, and on the otlier, Iw a mongrel mob 
reinforced by freed slaves. The lines of an English poet, almost 
two thousand years later, regarding similar phenomena in his 
own country, apply to this Italy : 

"111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates, and men decay!" 

Political With this moral decline came ])olitical decay. In theory the 

decay constitution had not changed ; but really it had become a play- 

thing for factions of ambitious and degenerate ])()liticians. Old 
ideas of loyalty, obedience, regard for law, self-restraint, van- 
ished. Leading statesmen disregarded all checks of the con- 
stitution, to carry a point ; and young nobles flattered, caressed, 
A Senatorial and bribed the ])opulace for their xotes. The Senatorial order 
o igarc ly shrank from a broad and wise aristocracy into a narrow, selfish, 
incompetent oligarchy, careful oidy of its own class interests. 
The shows expecte<l from a<'diles, to cnteitain the j)opulace, 
had become so costly that only the wealthiest men, or the most 
reckless gamesters, could sfart in j)olitics. 



PLATE XXVII 




Above. — Ruins of the Temple of Apollo at Pompeii, with a view of Ve- 
suvius the destroyer in the background. (Cf. Plate XXIV, facing p. 180.) 

Below. — A Court in the House of the Vettii at Pompeii. (The 
modern shrubbery reproduces something of what the open court must 
have possessed.) 



CLASS DIVTSTONS 189 

So, too, there was a sharper line than formerly, through all Growing 
Italy, between citizens and subjects. Rome ceased to take in i,e^t4Ten**^ 
new bodies of citizens : she no longer sent out Latin colonies — citizens and 
since the ruling class in Rome wished all vacant lands for ^" ^^^ ^ 
themselves ; and her " Allies," whose loyal friendship had 
saved her from Hannibal, she began to treat as subjects. 
She gave them a smaller share of the plunder of war than for- 
merly, and doubled their share of men for the army, while 
Roman officials sometimes displayed toward them a new inso- 
lence and a brutal cruelty. In one town the city consul was 
stripped and scourged because the peevish wife of a Roman 
magistrate felt aggrieved that the public baths were not vacated 
for her use quickly enough. 

Worse still was the distiiiction between Italy and the provinces. And 
" Italy was to rule and feast : the provinces were to obey and \^^^^^^ 
pay." the prov- 

The Roman province dates from the conquests of the First ^^^^^ 
Punic War. The islands then acquired were "beyond seas," 
and seemed to Rome too distant or too foreign to permit the 
extension to them of her liberal policy (at that time) toward 
subject communities in Italy. And Rome failed at this point 
to invent a new and needed form of government. The constitution 
of a city-state she had expanded and adapted with wonderful 
skill to the needs of a united Italy, but for conquests beyond 
Italy that scheme broke down. All the conquests after the 
war with Pyrrhus were called provinces, and were ruled essen- 
tially upon the model of the two or three little prefectures 
in Italy — the worst type of government Rome had used. 
To be sure, the Roman administration at first was more honest 
and capable than Carthaginian or Greek. But irresponsible 
power bred recklessness and corruption. 

The special marks of a province were : payment of taxes Marks of a 
in money or grain ; and the absolute rule of a Roman P^°^^"*^® 
governor. 

The Senate fixed at will the amount that each province Taxes 
must pay. Then it " farmed out" the collection of this revenue, 
at pubHc auction, usually to some company of Roman capital- 



190 



DKCAV oy TIIK KOMAX KNIPIKK 



ists. 'r\\v " coiitrjictor" pnid down a iiiiiip sum, and had for 
hiiiisclt' all lliat lie could s(|U('("/(' i'l'oni tlic j)ro\iuc(' aKoxc that 
ainounl. 'I'liis arraii^cint'iit constimtly tempted the contractor 
to extortion, and encouraged liis aj^MMits in theft — all at the 
e.\|)ense of the helpless provincials. If a contractor seized 
twice the intended amount, it would afterwards l)e almost 
im])ossil)le to proNc the fact — es])ecially when the only judaic 
was the Konian uoxcrnor who pei"ha|)s receixcd i)art of the 
plunder. The whole corrupt and tyrannical system was like 
that by which Turk(\v in our day has <;round down her Christian 
provinces. 

K\i'rythin«; tended to make the governor a tyrant. He 
had soldiers to hack up any command. There was no appeal 
from his decrees, and no tribune to veto his acts. Even the 
persons of the provincials were at his mercy. ^ He was appointed 
hy the Senate from those nobles who had just held consulships 
or praetorshi})s ; and commonly he had expected to get a province 
to plunder, in order to repay himself, or his creditors, for earlier 
outlay in getting office. 

True, a governor might be brought to trial ; but only (iftrr 
his term had expired ; and only at Ixoun , and before the Senate — 
whose members were interested in j)assing around such chances 
for exj)l()itati()n among their order. Poor provincials, of 
course, had to endure any abuse without even seeking re- 
dress; and in any case it was rarely ])ossible to secure con- 
viction even of the grossest offenders. WluMi a certain Verres 
was gix'en the |)ro\ inc«' of Sicily for three y(>ars, ("icero tells 
us, he cynically declared it (piite enough : "In the first year he 
could secure j)lunder for himself; in the second for his friends; 
in the third foi- his judges." 



This new period of class struggle was to last nearly a century, 
and to end onl\- with the coming of the Caesars — a connnon 
master. The strife was ihri'c-fold : /// Ixouir, between rich and 

* In Cisalpine Gaul a Roman Kf)vorn(>r hchoatird a nohlo (laul. a fugitive 
guest in his camj). j»ist to gratify witli the sight a worthless favorite who was 
lamenting that he had missed the gladiatorial games at Rome (Davis' Rrad- 
iugs, II, \o. 'M). 



THE PROVINCES 191 

poor; in Italy, between Rome and the " Allies '* ; in the Roman 
world, between Italy and the provinces. 

Everywhere, too, there was possible strife between masters Roman 
and slaves. In the closing period of the Roman Republic, ^^*^®^ 
there grew up a slavery beyond all parallel in extent and in 
horror. Says one leading authority, "In comparison with its 
abyss of suffering, all Negro slavery [has been] but a drop in 
the ocean." Slaves were made cheap by the wars of conquest. 
Later, to keep up the cheap supply, man hunts were organized 
regularly on the frontiers, and kidnappers even desolated some 
of the provinces. At the famous slave market in Delos ten 
thousand slaves were once sold in a day. Cato (p. 180), the 
model Roman, advised his countrymen to work slaves like 
cattle, selling off the old and infirm. "The slave," he said, 
"should be always working or sleeping." Naturally, the 
Roman world was troubled by many terrible slave revolts. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE GRACCHI, 133-121 B.C. 

Tiberius The evils described in the last chapter had not come upon 

Gracchus Iconic without being seen l)y many thoughtful men, and with- 
out some efforts at reform. But the older statesmen were too 
selfish, too narrow, or too timid ; and the great attempt at 
reform fell to two youths, the Gracchi brothers, throbbing 
with nol)le enthusiasm and with the fire of genius. 

Tiberius Gracchus was still under thirty at liis death. He 
was one of the brilliant circle of young Romans about Scij)io. 
His father had been a magnificent aristocrat. His mother, 
Cornelia, a daughter of the elder Africanus, is as famous for her 
fine culture and noble nature as for being the "Mother of the 
Gracchi." Til)erius himself was early distinguished in war, and 
marked by his uprightness and energy. Thi.s w(i,s fhr first man 
to strike at the root of the i)i(lustrial, moral, and political decaii of 
His pro- Itdly, hy trying to rebuild the yeoman class. He obtained the 

posals for tribuneship for the year 133, and at once brought forward an 

land re- ^ " .... 

form agrarian' law (the obsolete land clause of the Licinian law in 

a gentler but more effective form) : 

1. Each holder of public land was to surrender all tliat he 
held in excess of the legal limit, receiving in return absolute title 
to the three hundred acres hft him. (This was generous treat- 
ment and neither confiscation nor demagogism. It was further 
provided that an old holder might ke(>p al)ont l(>0 acres more 
for each of his sons.) 

2. The land reclaimed was to be gixcn in small holdings 
(some eighteen acres each) to poor ai)i)li('ants, so as to re-create 
a yeomanry. And to make the reform lasting, these holders 
and their descendants were to i)()ssess their land leifhout right 

> Agrarian refers to land, e.'^perially farm land ; from the Latin a{/fr. 
Opponents of reform very commonly refer contemptuously to any attempt 
at social betterment as "agrariani.sm." 

192 




A Roman Hi.lidan, with Pkockssion 



CLASS GREED — THE GRACCHI 193 

to sell. In return, the}^ were to pay a small rent to the state. 
(This is very like the land projects that have been under con- 
sideration in America to provide for unemployed returned sol- 
diers since the World War.) 

3. To provide for changes, and to keep the law from being 
neglected, there was to be a permanent board of three commis- 
sioners to superintend the reclaiming and distributing of land. 

Gracchus urged his law with fiery eloquence : " The wild beasts The struggle 
of Italy have their dens, but the brave men who spill their 
blood for her are without homes or settled habitations. The 
private soldiers fight and die to advance the luxury of the 
great, and they are called masters of the world without having 
a sod to call their own." The Senate of course opposed the pro- 
posal as " confiscation." Tiberius brought the question directly 
before the tribes, as he had the right to do ; and the town tribes, 
and all the small farmers left in the rural tribes, rallied enthusi- 
astically to his support. The Senate put up one of the other 
tribunes, Octavius, to forbid a vote. After many pleadings, 
Tiberius resorted to a revolutionary measure. In spite of his 
colleague's veto, he put to the Assembly the question whether 
he or Octavius should be deposed ; and when the vote was given 
unanimously against Octavius, Tiberius had him dragged from 
his seat. Then the great law was passed. 

Tiberius next proposed to extend Roman citizenship to all Tiberius 
Italy. The Senate fell back upon an ancient cry: it accused f®^^s^° 
him of trymg to make himself king, and threatened to try Allies into 
him at the end of his term. To complete his work, and to *^® ^***® 
save himself, Gracchus asked for reelection. The first two 
tribes voted for him, and then the Senate, having failed in other 
methods, declared his candidacy illegal. Tiberius saw that Tiberius 
he was lost. He put on mourning and asked the people only murdered 
to protect his infant son. It was harvest time, and the farmers tocrats 
were absent from the Assembly, which was left largely to the 
worthless city rabble. The more violent of the Senators and 
their friends, charging the undecided mob, put it to flight and 
murdered Gracchus — a patriot-martyr worthy of the company 
of the Cassius, Manlius, and Maelius of earlier days. Some 



104 



DKC'LIXK OF TIIK KoMAX KKIHTBLIC 



His work 
lived for a 
while 



Aristocratic 
reaction 



three lumdred of his adlierents also were killed and thrown 
into theTiher. Rome, in all her centniies ofsti'rn, soher, j)atient 
constitutional strife, had ne\er witnessed such a day before. 

The Senate declared the murder an act of patriotism, and 
followed up the reformer's partisans with mock trials and perse- 
cutions, fastenint,^ one of them, says Plutarch, in a chest with 
vipers. But the work of Tiberius lived on. The Senate did 
not dare to interfere witli the (;reat law that liad l)een carried. 
A consul for the year 132 inscril)ed on a monument, that he was 
the first who had installed farmers in place of shepherds on the 
public domains. The land commission (composed of the friends 
of Tiberius) continued its work zealously, and in 125 B.C. fhr 
citizen list of Rome h(i4 increased by eighty thousand farmers. 

This "back to the land" movement was a vast and healthful 
reform. If it could have ])een kept up vi<;orously, it might 
have turned the dangerous rabble into sturdy husbandmen, 
and so removed Rome's chief danger. But of coui-se to re- 
claim so much land from old holders led to many bitter dis- 
putes as to titles ; and, after a few years, the Senate took ad- 
vantage of this fact to abolish the commission. 



Caius 
Gracchus 



Caius 

provides 

allies 



Immediately after this reaction, Caius Gracchus took up the 
work. He had been a youth when Tiberius was assassinated. 
Now he was Rome's greatest orator, — a dauntless, resolute, 
clear-sighted man, long brooding on personal revenge and on pa- 
triotic reform. Tiberius, he declared, apj)eared to him in a 
dream to call him to his task: " \Vh>- do you hesitate? You 
cannot escape your doom and mine — to live for the people 
and to die for them ! " A iceently discovered letter from Cor- 
nelia indicates, too, that liis mother uiu«'d him on. 

First Gracchus sought to win i)olitieal allies. He gained 
tlie favor of the equitis l)y getting them tlie control of the law 
courts (in i)laee of the former .senatorial eontroH ; and the city 
mob lie secured by a corn law providing for the sale of grain to 
the poor in the ca])ital at half the regular market j)rice — the 
other half to be made up from tlie public treasury. This 
measure undoubtedh' had a \ ieious side, and aristocratic writers 



CLASS STRIFE — THE GRACCHI 195 

have made the most of it. Perhaps Caiiis regarded it as a 
necessary poor-law, and as compensation for the pubhc lands 
that still remained in the hands of the wealthy. It did not 
pauperize the poor, because such distributions by private 
patrons, especially by office-seekers, were already customary 
on a vast scale : it simply took this charity into the hands of 
the state and if Gracchus' other measures could have been car- 
ried through, the need for such temporary charity would have 
been removed. 

Caius then entered upon the work of reform. The land com- Economic 
mission was reestablished, and its work was extended to the reform 
founding of Roman colonics iii distant parts of Italy. Still more 
important, — Caius introduced the pkm of Roman colonization out- Roman 

side Italy. He sent six thousand colonists from Rome and other ^^^^^^^^^ 

abroad 
Italian towns to the waste site of Carthage, and planned other 

such foundations. If this statesmanlike measure had been 
allowed to work, it would not only have provided for the land- 
less poor of Italy : it would also have Romanized the provinces 
rapidly, and would have broken down the unhappy distinctions 
between them and Italy. (The colonists kept full citizenship.) 

Caius also pressed earnestl3' for political reform outside the Attempt to 
city. He proposed, wisely and nol)ly, to confer full citizenship ^^*^"^ 
upon the Latins, and Latin rights upon all Italy. But the to the Allies 
tribes, jealous of any extension of their privileges to others, were 
quite ready to desert him on these matters. The "knights" 
and the merchants, too, had grown hostile, because they hated 
to see commercial rivals like Corinth and Carthage rebuilt. 

The Senate seized its chance. It set on another tribune. Defeat and 
Drusus, to outbid Caius by promises never meant to be kept, murder 
Drusus proposed to found twelve large colonies at once in Italy 
and to do away with the small rent paid by the new peasantry. 
There was no land for these colonies, but the mob thoughtlessly 
followed the treacherous demagogue and abandoned its true 
leader. When Gracchus stood for a third election he was de- 
feated. 

Now that he was no longer protected by the sanctity of the 
tribuneship, the nobles, headed by the consul (a ferocious 



nU) DKC^.LINK OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 

jxTsoiial cncmv), were Ix'iit upon his ruin. Tlic chanci' was 
soon found. Tlu* Senate tried to rej)eal the hiw for the eolony 
at ('artha<:;e. This attempt eaused nian\ of the old supporters 
of Caius to eonie into the Assenil)ly from the country. Re- 
nienilx'rinj; tlie fate of Til)erius, some of them came in arms. 
The nobles cried out that this meant a conspiracy to overthrow 
the government. The consul called the senatorial party to 
arms and ofi'ered for the head of Gracchus its weight in p)ld 
{the fir.s'f ifi.sfdnrc of head uionc}/ In Ronum ciril .strife). A bloody 
battle followed in the streets. Gracchus, taking no part in the 
conflict himself, was slain. Three thousand of his adherents 
were afterward strangled in prison. 
Work of The victorious Senate struck hard. It resumed its sovereign 

rule. The proposed colonies were abandoned ; then the great 
land reform itself was undone: the peasants were perinltted to 
sell their land, and the eonnnisxion ira,s' (dxdi.shed. The old 
economic decay began again, and soon tlie work of the (jracchi 
was but a memory. 

Even that memory the Senate tried to erase. ]\Ien W(M-e 
forl)idden to s])eak of the brothers, and Cornelia was not allowed 
to wear mourning for her sons. One lesson, howe\ cr, had 
been taught. The Senate had drawn the sword. When next 
a great reformer should take uj) the work of the Gracchi, he 
would come as a military master, to sweep away the wretched 
oligarchy with the sword, or to receive its cringing submission. 



the Gracchi 
undone 



t 



CHAPTER XXII 

THE SENATE AND MILITARY CHIEFS 

I. MARIUS AND SULLA, 106-78 b.c. 

The corrupt Senate had proved able to save its own unjust Incom- 
privileges by throttling reform, but it had grown glaringly, tj^/genate 
incompetent to guard the Roman world against outside foes. — except to 
Rome had left no other state able to keep the seas from pirates pj^^weg 
or to protect the frontiers of the civilized world against barba- 
rians. It was her plain duty therefore to police the Mediterra- 
nean lands herself. But even while she was murdering the fol- 
lowers of the Gracchi, the seas were swarming again with pirate 
fleets, and new barbarian thunderclouds were gathering un- 
watched along her borders. This was another reason why the 
Roman world was ready for a military master. 

The first great storm broke upon the northern frontier. The first 
The Cimbri and Tcidoncs, two German peoples, migrating 
slowly with families, flocks, and goods, in search of new homes, 
reached the passes of the Alps in the year 113. These new bar- 
barians were huge, flaxen-haired, with fierce blue eyes, and they 
terrified the smaller Italians by their size, their terrific shouts, 
and their savage customs. They defeated five Roman armies 
in swift succession (the last with slaughter that recalled the 
day of Cannae), ravaged Gaul and Spain at will for some 
years, and finally threatened Italy itself. At the same time a 
dangerous Slave War had broken out in Sicily. 

Rome found a general none too soon. Mariiis (a rude soldier, Marius 
son of a Volscian day-laborer) had just before risen from the 
ranks to chief command in a critical war against African bar- 
barians. In defiance of the law and against the wish of the 
Senate, the Assembly reelected him consul in his absence — 
and repeated this action each year for the next four years. 
While the Germans gave him time, Marius reformed and drilled 

197 



German 
invasion 



saves Rome 



198 



FALL OF Tlfl<: KOMAX KKPUBLIC 



Marius' 
failure as 
reformer 



liis army. Tlicii, in tin- suiniucr of 102, at A(jiitic Sr.rfiar (Aix) 
in southern Gaul lie auniliilatcd tlic two lumdrcd thousand 
warriors of the Teutones, with all their women Jind ehildren, 
in a huge massacre (Davis' Rrndings, II, No. 41). The next 
sunnner he destroyed in like manner the vast horde of the ( 'imhri, 
who had penetrated to the Po. The first German nation to 
attack Rome had won graves in her soil. 

Marius might now lia\-e made himself king; or, Ix'tter, had 
he been enougli of a statesman, he might have used his ])()wer 
to reform the Republic. He was naturally the chanij)ion of the 
democrats; hut he looked on (undecided, and incapable except 
in the field) wlu'le the Senatorial party massacred the reviving 
democratic party once more in a street war ■ — and so he lost his 
chance. 



The Social 
War' : Sulla 



All Italy 
enters the 
Roman 
state 



Soon another war brought to the front another great general. 
In tlie year 91, tlie tril)une Dru.sus, son of the Drusus wlio liad 
opposed the Gracchi, took up the Gracchi's work and proi)osed 
to extend citizenshi]) to the Italians. The nol)les murdered 
liim, and carried a law tlu-eatening death to any one wlio should 
renew the projxjsal. Then the Italians rose in arms. Once 
more Rome fought for life, surrounded by a ring of foes. This 
Social War (war with the Socii, or "Allies") was as dangerous 
a contest as the imperial city ever waged (91-8(S B.C.). Two 
things saved her. She divided her foes by granting citizenship 
to all who woidd at once lay down their arms; and the aris- 
tocratic consul, Sulla, sliowed nuignificent geiu>ralship. 

The "Allies" were crushed, huf thrir cditsr iras ricforioii.s. 
Whrn the war was oxer, Rome grachially incorj)orated into tlie 
Roman state all Italy south of the Po, tiiak'nuj all Italian cities 
iiiimicipia and raining the numhrr of rifi-:i ns from /,()0,0U0 to 
000,000. 



The peril l''or tliirty yrai's tlic Senate had looked on indolently while 

fromMith- ,].,, ,,.,. ^.jitluTed h.-a.l in Asia. Finallv the storm had burst. 

ridates in '^ 

the East I'ontus, Armenia, and Parthia had grown into independent 

kingdoms, each of them, for long time past, encroaching upon 



MILITARY CHIEFS: POMPEY AND CAESAR 199 

Rome's territory. At last, Mithndates VI, king of Pontus, 
suddenly seized the Roman province of Asia Minor, then called 
the "Province of Asia." The people hailed him as a deliverer, 
and joined him enthusiastically to secure freedom from the 
hated extortion of Roman tax-collectors and money-lenders. 
Eighty thousand Italians, scattered through the province, — 
men, women, and children, — were massacred, almost in a day, 
by the city mobs. Then Mithridates turned to Macedonia 
and Greece. Here, too, the people joined him against Rome. 
Athens welcomed him as a savior from Roman tyranny ; and 
twenty thousand more Italians were massacred in Greece 
and in the Aegean islands. Rome^s dominion in the Eastern 
world had crumbled. 

This news merely intensified anarchy in Rome. The Senate civil 
declared war on Mithridates and gave the command to Sulla. ^" 
The Assembly insisted that Marius should have charge. Then 
followed savage civil war with regular armies, and with bloody 
massacre after massacre in the streets of the capital. After 
various ups and downs, Marius died in an orgy of triumph. 
And then, on his return from victory in the East, Sulla ruled 
for years with the title of permanent dictator (81-78 .B.C.), Sulla's 
stamping out the embers of democracy by systematic and long- dictatorship 
continued assassination. Finally, when he thought Senatorial 
rule safely reestablished, he abdicated his monarchy — and 
died in peace, in debauchery. 

II. POMPEY AND CAESAR, 78^9 b.c. 

Sulla 's death left one of his officers, Pompey, the leading man Pompey in 
at Rome — a fair soldier, but otherwise of mediocre ability, ^P**^ 
vain, sluggish, and cautious. Pompey now forced or persuaded 
the Senate to send him with an overwhelming army to put down 
a long-standing rebellion in Spain — where he succeeded after 
the democratic general of the rebels (Sertorius) had been assassi- 
nated. In his absence, came a terrible slave revolt in Italy, And 
headed by the gallant Spartacus. Spartacus was a Thracian ^^^ ^^"^ 
captive who had been forced to become a gladiator. With a 
few companions he escaped from the gladiatorial school at 



200 FALL OF TirL HOMAX liKl^UBLIC 

("apua and lied to the inouiitains. 'riicrc lie was joined l)y 
otluT fugitive slaves until he was at the head of an arin\ of 
70,000 men. For three years he kei)t the field, and repeatedly 
threatened Rome itself. Just as Ponij)ey returned to Italy, 
however, in 70 B.C., Spartacus' forces were crushed by Crassus, 
another of Sulla's old lieutenants; but Pompey arrived in time 
to cut to pieces a few thousand fugitives and to claim a share 
of the credit. 

Pompey and And in ()7, military danger called Pompey again to the front, 
pira es r^^j^^ na\y of Rome had fallen to utter decay, and swarms of 
pirates terrorized the seas, setting u}) a formidable state on 
the rocky coasts of Cilicia and negotiating with kings as ecpuils. 
They paralyzed trade along the great Mediterranean highway, 
and even ravaged the coasts of Italy. Finally they threatened 
Rome itself with starxation by cutting off the grain Heets. 
To put down these plunderers Pompey was given supreme 
command for ihrcc i/cars in the Mrdiftrrdiicdn and in all its 
coasts for fif ill miles inUind. He received also unlimited author- 
ity over all the resources of the realm. Assembling vast fleets, 
he swept the seas in a three months ' campaign. 

Pompey in Then Pomjx'y 's conunaud was extended indefinitili/ in 

order that he might carry on another war against Mithridates 
of Pontus, who for several years liad again been threatening 
Roman power in Asia Minor. He was absent on this mission 
five years — a glorious ])eriod in his career, and one that proved 
the resources and energies of the eonnnonwealth unexhausted, 
if only a resjx^ctable leader were found to direct them. He 
waged successful wars, crushed dangerous rebellions, conquered 
Pontus and .\rmenia, annexed wide i)ro\ inees and extended 
the Roman bounds to the Kui)hrates, and restored order through- 
Pompey out tlie I'^ast. When he returned to Italy, in iV2, he was " Pom])ey 
the (ireat," tlie leading figure in the world. The crown was 
within his grasj) ; but he let it slij). e\|)eeting it to be thrust 
uj)on him. 

An<l now a deujoeratie leader had risen to j)rominence. Cains 
Julius Caesar, of an old patrician family, had defied Sulla 
with ((uiet dignity when ordered to divorce his wife (daughter 



the Great 



MILITARY CHIEFS: POMPEY AND CAESAR 201 

of a leading enemy of Sulla) — though Pompey had obeyed a 
like command. Barely escaping the massacres (still a boy in 
years), he had fled into hiding in the mountains during Sulla's 
rule. During Pompey 's absence, he had served in various pub- 
lic offices, and had striven earnestly to reorganize the crushed 
democratic party. In 64 B.C., by a daring stroke, he set up 
again at the Capitol the trophies of Marius, which Sulla had 
torn down. 

The return of Pompey seemed to close Caesar's career; The "First 
but the jealous and stupid Senate refused to give Pompey 's T""/^";, 
soldiers the lands he had promised them for pay, and delayed 
even to ratify his wise political arrangements in the East. 
He had disbanded his army, and for two years he fretted in 
vain. Caesar seized the chance and formed a coalition between 
Pompey, Crassus, and himself. This alliance is sometimes 
called the "First Triumvirate." Caesar furnished the brains 
and obtained the fruits. He became consul (59 B.C.) and set 
about securing Pompey 's measures. The Senate refused even 
to consider them. Caesar laid them directly before the Assem- 
bly. A tribune, of the Senate's party, interposed his veto. 
Caesar looked on calmly while a mob of Pompey 's veterans 
drove the tribune from the Assembly. To delay proceedings, 
the other consul then announced that he would consult the 
omens. According to law, all action should have ceased until 
the result was known ; but Caesar serenely disregarded this 
antiquated check, and carried the measures. 

At the close of his consulship, Caesar secured command of Caesar in 
the Gallic provinces for five years as proconsul. For the next ^^"^ 
ten years he abandoned Italy for the supreme work that opened 
to him beyond the Alps. He found the Province ^ threatened 
by two great invasions : the whole people of the Helvetii were 
migrating from their Alpine homes in search of more fertile 
lands ; and a great German nation, under the king Ariovistus, 
was already encamped in Gaul. The Gauls themselves were 
distracted by feuds and grievously oppressed by their dis- 

1 In 121 the southern part of Transalpine Gaul had been given the form 
of a province. It was commonly known as The Province (modern Provence). 



202 



FALL OF TUK ROMAN REPUBLIC 



And the 
results 



orderly chieftains. Carsar levied armies hastily, and in one sum- 
mer drove hack the Ilelvetii and annihilated the German in- 
vaders. Tlicn he seized upon the Rhine as the proper Roman 
frontier, and, in a series of masterly campaigns, he made all 
Gaul Roman, extending his expeditions even into Britain. 
Whatexer we tliink of the morality of these conquests, they 
were to produce infinite good for mankind. Their justifica- 
tion rests u])on much the same basis as does the White occupa- 
tion of America. Says John Fiske (an American historian) : 
"We ought to he thankful to Caesar every (hiy tliat we live." 
The result of the Gallic campaigns was two-fold. 

1. Tlu^ wa\-e of German invasion was again checked, until 
Roman civilization had time to do its work and to prepare 
the way for the coming Christian church. "Let the Alps 
now sink," (^xclainu^d Cicero; "the gods raised them to shelter 
Italy from the barbarians, but they are no longer needed." 

2. A wider home for Roman cixilization was won jimong 
fresh po])ulations, unexhausted and \ igorous. Thr nmp widrnrd 
from the Mrditrmuiidn circle to include the .shores of thr Xorth 
(Did Baltic sca,s. The land that Caesar made Roman (modern 
France) was, next to Greece and Italy, to be the chief teacher 
of Europe. 



Caesar and 
Pompey 



Senate 
adopts 
Pompey 



T\ 



U' Close o 



f Cae 



sar's five vears i 



n Gaul ^aw bin 



1 easuv su- 



j)eri()r to his colleagues, and able to seize power at Rome if he 
chose. But it was never his way to leave the work in hand 
unfinished. He renewed tlie "triumvirate" in 55 h.c, secur- 
ing the Gauls for five years more for liimself, giving Sjiain to 
Pompey, and Asia to Crassus. 

Crassus soon ])erisli(Mi in battle against tlie Partliians in the 
East. Then it became plain that the (juestion whether Caesar 
or Pompey was to rule at Rom<^ could not long be postponed. 
The Senate was growing frantic witli fear of Caesar's victorious 
legions. Pompey, jealous of his more brilliant rival, drew 
nearer to the Senate again, and that terrified body adopted 
him eagerly as its champion, ho])ing that it had found another 
Sulla to check this new Marius. Pompey was made sole con- 



JULIUS CAESAR 203 

sul with supreme command in Italy, and at the same time 
his indefinite proconsular yoivers abroad were continued to 

him. 

Caesar's office as proconsul was about to expire. He still 
shrank from civil war. He meant to secure the consulship for 
the next year and, in that case, he hoped to carry out reforms 
at Rome without violence. But his offers of conciHation and 
compromise were rebuffed by Pompey and the Senate. To 
stand for consul, under the law, Caesar must disband his army 
and come to Rome in person. There would be an interval 
of some months when he would be a private citizen. The 
aristocrats boasted openly that in this helpless interval they 
would destroy him as they had the Gracchi. Caesar offered ■• _ 

to lay down his command and disband his troops, if Pompey 
were ordered to do the same. Instead, the aristocrats carried 
a decree that Caesar must disband his troops before a certain 
day or be declared a public enemy. Two tribunes vetoed the 
decree, but were mobbed, and barely escaped to Caesar's 
camp in Cisalpine Gaul. 

At last the Senate had made Caesar choose between civil And^^^^^^ 
war and ruin both for himself and for all his hopes for the ^j^^^^^ ^^^jj 
Roman world. He had made no preparation for war. Only war or ruin 
one of his eleven legions was with him in Cisalpine Gaul ; the 
others were dispersed in distant garrisons far beyond the Alps. 
But within an hour after the arrival of the fugitives, he was on 
the march with only his 5000 men. The same night he crossed Caesar^ ^^^ 
the Riibicon —the little stream that separated his province ^^^^^^0^ 
from "Italy." This act was war: a proconsul was strictly 
forbidden by law to bring an army into Italy. Caesar paused 
a few moments, it is said, for the last time, when he reached the 
bank of the river at the head of his troops ; then he spurred 
forward, exclaiming, " The die is cast." 



PART V- THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

Rome wan the icholc world, on<l all the world wo.s Rome. 

— Spenser, Ruins of Rome. 



(IIAPTKH XXIIl 



FOUNDING THE EMPIRE, 49-31 B.C. 



" I came, 
I saw, I con- 
quered 



\Yitli audacious rapidity Caesar led liis one legion directly 
upon the nuich larger forces that ponderous Ponipey was 
musterin*^ ; and in sixty days, almost without bloodshed, he was 
master of the peninsula. 

Following Pom])ey to Greece, he became master of the world 
by a battle at Pluirsdlus the next spring-. Caesar's little army 
had been li\ing for weeks on roots and bark of trees, and it 
numbered less than half Pompey 's well-provided troo])s. Pom- 
pey, too, had his choice of positions, and he had ne\'er been 
beaten in tiie field. But despite liis career of unbroken success, 
Pompey was "formed for a corporal," while Caesar, though 
caring not at all for mere military glory, was one of the great- 
est captains of all time. And says an English historian : 

"The one host was composed in great part of a motley crowd from 
Greece and the East . . . the other was chiefly drawn from the Gallic 
pojjuhitions of Italy and the West, fre^h, vigorous, intelligent, and 
united in dcvoticMi and loyalty to their leader. . . . With Caesar was 
the sfyirit of the future; and his victory marks the moment when hu- 
manity could once more start hopefully upon a new line of i)rogress." 

Other wars took precious time. Kg>j)t and .\sia Minor each 
re(iiiii-e(l a eani|)aigii. In l\u_\j)t. with the \()hii)tuous (|ueen, 
CIropdtra, Caesar wasted a few months; i)Ut he atoned for this 
delay by swift j)rosecution of the war in Asia against the son 
of Mithridates. This was the campaign that Caesar re])<)rted 
rather boastf\dly to his lieutenants in Home, — "1 came, I 
saw, I coiKiuered." 

204 



JULIUS CAESAR'S FIVE YEARS 205 

Caesar's first constructive work was to reconcile Italy to his Caesar 
government. He maintained strict order, guarded property reconciles 
carefully, and punished no political opponent who laid down 
arms. Only one of his soldiers had refused to follow him when 
he decided upon civil war. Caesar sent all this officer's prop- 
erty after him to Pompey's camp, and continued that policy 
toward the nobles who left Italy to join Pompey. On the field 
of victory, he called to his vengeful soldiers to remember that 
the enemy were their fellow-citizens; and after Pharsalus, he 
employed in the public service any Roman of ability, imihout 
regard to the side he had fought 07i. This clemency brought 
its proper fruit. Almost at once all classes, except a few aris- 
tocratic extremists, became heartily reconciled to his rule. 

From the time of the Gracchi, Rome had been moving toward Caesa;'s 
monarchy. Owing to the corruption of the popidace in the capital, "lon^chy 
and to the incompetent greed of the oligarchs, the tremendous of iJig- 
power of the tribune had grown occasionally into a virtual standing 
dictatorship, as with Caius Gracchus. Owing to the growing 
military danger on the frontiers, the mighty authority of a pro- 
consul of a single province was sometimes extended, by special 
decrees, over vaster areas for indefinite time, as w^ith Marius, 
Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar. To make a monarch needed hut 
to unite these two powers, at home and abroad, in one person. 

This was what Caesar did. He preserved the old Republi- 
can forms. The Senate debated, and the Assembly elected 
aediles, consuls, and praetors as before. But Caesar received 
"the tribunician power" for life, and the title of Imperator 
for himself and his descendants. This term, from which we get 
our word "Emperor," had meant simply supreme general, and 
had been used only of the master of legions in the field abroad. 
Probably Caesar would have liked the title of king, since the 
recognized authority that went w^ith it would have helped him 
to keep order. But he found that name still hateful to the 
people ; and so he adopted Imperator for his title as monarch. 

The corruption of the populace and the incapacity of the 
greedy oligarchy, we have said, made monarchy inevitable. 



206 



BOUNDING THE ROMAN EMPIRE 



A third condition — the Senatorial niis^^()\i>rnnient of the prov- 
inces — made Cacsar\s monarchy a boon to the great Roman 
world outside Italy. 
Caesar the Indeed Caesar rose to power as the clianipion of suffering 

^^1?^*°" subject populations. Already, as proconsul, on his own author- 
pressed pro- ity, he had admitted the Cisalpine Gauls to all the pri\ileges 
vincialworld ^f Roman citizens. In his most arduous campaigns, hv had 

kei)t up correspondence 
witli leading provincials in 
other parts of the Empire. 
Otlier Ronuin concjuerors 
liad spent part of their 
plunder of tlie provinces 
in adorning Rome witli 
])u))lie buildings: Caesar 
liad ex])ended vast sums 
ill adorning and im])rov- 
ing provincial citirs, not 
only in his own districts 
of Gaul and S])ain, but 
also in Asia and Greece. 
All previous Roman ar- 
mies had been made u]) of 

,, ,,, ^ , Italians: Caesar's arm\- 
Julius Caesar. — Wo are not sure, how- 
ever, that any of the so-called "busts of was drawn from Cisal|)ine 
Caesar" aro really authentic. q.^,,|^ .,„,| j,,^,^.^.,, j,.„.^,^. 

from Gaul beyond the Alps. Many of the subject peoples had 
begun to look to him as their best hop<> against Senatorial 
rapacity; and the great body of tlieiu wislu'd for monarchy as 
an es('a])c from anarchy and oligarchic misrule. (To call Caesar's 
monarchy a solution for tlie ])r()l)lcms of his day is not to call 
monarchy good at all times. A (lcsi)otism can get along w itli l<>ss 
virtue and intelligence tlian a free governnuMit can. The Roman 
world was not good enough or wise enough for free go^■ernment ; 
and indeed it seemed on the \-erge of ruin. The (h's])otism of 
the Caesars was a ])oison — but a strong iiiedicim- whicli pre- 
served tliat world for five j)reci()us centuries.) 




PLATE XXX 









Ahovk. — Thk Roman- Fouim IO-dav. - Tliis viow looks southwanl from 
the direction of the Capitoline (p. l")!). toward the tfastern edge of the 
Pahitine. Tlie Kroiip of coluriiiis in the foreground belonged to a Temple 
of Saturn, which was also the lioman Treasury. The rows of bases of 
|)illars, on the right, belonged to a splendid basilica, or judgment hall, 
built by Julius Caesar. South of the Temple of Saturn, and to the left of 
( 'aesar's basilica, lay the open market place. 

Below. — Roman Fohim To-day. looking toward the Capitoline. Note 
the triumphal arch on the right (Arch of Titus; cf. Plate XXX II I). 



JULIUS CAESAR'S FIVE YEARS 207 

Caesar at once made over the system of provincial govern- Caesar 
ment. The old governors had been irresponsible tyrants, with '■®^<'™s. *h® 
ever}^ temptation to plunder. Under Caesar they began to be system 
trained servants of a stern master who looked to the welfare of 
the whole Empire. Their authority was lessened, and they w ere 
surrounded by a system of checks in the presence of other offi- 
cials dependent directly upon the Imperator. 

Caesar's plans were broader than this. He meant to put the And extends 
provinces upon an equality with Italy, and to m.old the dis- .°.™^^^ 
tracted Roman world into one mighty whole under equal laws, outside 
Something he accomplished in the brief time left him. He ^^ 
incorporated all Cisalpine Gaul in Italy, and multiplied Roman 
citizenship by adding whole communities in Gaul beyond the 
Alps, in Spain, and elsewhere. Leading Gauls, too, were ad- 
mitted to the Senate, whose membership Caesar raised to 900, 
meaning to make it represent the whole Empire. 

Rome and Italy were not neglected. A commission, like Renewal of 

that of the Gracchi, w^as put at work to reclaim and allot public *^® Yf°^^ ,°/ 

. the Gracchi 

lands. Landlords were required to employ at least one free for Italy 

laborer for every two slaves. Italian colonization in the prov- 
inces was pressed vigorously. In his early consulship (59 B.C.), 
Caesar had refounded Capua ; now he did the like for Carthage 
and Corinth, and these noble capitals, wdiich had been crim- 
inally destroyed by the narrow jealousy of the Roman mer- 
chants, rose again to wealth and power. Eighty thousand 
landless citizens of Rome were provided for beyond seas; and 
by these and other means the helpless poor in the capital, 
dependent upon free grain, were reduced from 320,000 to 150,000. 
Soon after the time of the Gracchi, it became necessary to 
extend the practice of selling cheap grain to distributing free 
grain, at state expense, to the populace of the capital. This 
became one of the chief duties of the government. To have 
omitted it would have meant starvation and a horrible insur- 
rection. For centuries to come, the degraded populace was 
ready to support any political adventurer who seemed willing 
and able to satisfy lavishh^ its cry for "bread and games." 
To have attacked the growing evil so boldly is one of Caesar's 



208 



FOUXDIXG TIIK ROMAN P]MP1RE 



chief titU's to lionor. With a longer Hfe, no (l()ul)t he would 
have lessened it still further. His successors soon abandoned 
the task. 

Rigid economy was introduced into all branches of the govern- 
ment. A bankru])t law released all debtors from further claims, 
if they surrendered their prj)j)erty to their creditors, and so 




Thkatek at PoAtPKii. — Every KDinaii city liad its a/^i/>//' theater (/'/'o theaters 
back to back) for shows and gladiatorial games. Cf. illustrations after 
pp. 22S. 232. 



the demoralized Italian society was given a fresh start. Tax- 
ation was e(iualized and reduced. A comprehensi\e census 
was taken for all Italy, and measures were under way to extend 
it over the Empire. Caesar also began the codification of the 
irregular mass of Roman law, created a great public library, 
rebuilt the Forum, began vast public works in all parts of the 
Empire, and reformed the coinage and the calendar.^ 

' The Roman calendar had been inferior to the Egyptian and had got 
three months out of the way, so that the spring e(iuinox came in June. 
To correct the error. Caesar made the year 4(i ("the last year of confusion") 
consist of four hvmdred and lorty-five days, and for the future, instituted 
the system of leap years, as we have it, except for a slight correction by 
Pope Gregory in the sixteenth century. 



JULIUS CAESAR'S FIVE YEARS 209 

Caesar was still in the prime of manhood, and had ever^' The Ides 
reason to hope for time to complete his work. No public °^ March 
enemy could be raised against him within the empire. One 
danger there was : lurking assassins beset his path. But 
with characteristic dignity he quietly refused a bodyguard, 
declaring it better to die at any time than to live always in fear 
of death. And so the daggers of men whom he had spared 
struck him down. 

A group of irreconcilable nobles plotted to take his life, — 
led by the envious Cassius and the weak enthusiast Brutus, 
whom Caesar had heaped with favors. They accomplished 
their crime in the Senate-house, on the Ides of March (March 
15), 44 B.C. Crowding around him, and fawning upon him as if 
to ask a favor, the assassins suddenly drew their daggers. Ac- 
cording to an old story, Caesar at first, caUing for help, stood 
on his defense and wounded Cassius ; but when he saw the 
loved and trusted Brutus in the snarling pack, he cried out 
sadly, "Thou, too, Brutus!" and dramng his toga about him 
with calm dignity, he resisted no longer, but sank at the foot 
of Pompey's statue, bleeding from three and twenty stabs. 

No doubt, "Caesar was ambitious." He was a broad- Character 
minded genius, with a strong man's delight in ruling well. The "^^^^ 

murder came only five years after Caesar crossed the Rubicon. 
Those years, with their seven campaigns, gave only eight- 
een months for constructive reform. The work was left in- 
complete ; but that which was actually accomplished dazzles 
the imagination, and marked out the lines along which Caesar's 
successors, less grandly, had to move. 

The assassination led to fourteen years more of dreary civil Octavius 
war. Rome and all Italy rose against the murderers, and they *" '^ ^^^ 
fled to the East, where Pompey's name was still a strength to 
the aristocrats. They were followed and crushed at Philippi 
in Macedonia (42 b.c.) by the forces of the West led by Mark 
Antony (one of Caesar's officers) and Octavius Caesar, an 
adopted son of the first Imperator. Then Octavius and Antony 
divided the Roman world between themselves. Soon each 



Actium 



210 FOUXDlXd TlIK KOMAX EMPIRE 

was j)l()tliii.u fur the other's share. The Mast had fallen to An- 
tony, in K^\ l)t he heeame infatnated witli ( 'h'opatra. He 
bestowed rich pi'ON inces iij)()n her, and, it was rumored, he 
Battle of planned to supplant Rome by Alexandria as chic^f caj)ital. The 
West turned to Octavius as its ehamj)ion. In 'M, the rivals 
met in the naval battle of Aciiuin off the coast of Greece. Early 
in the battle, (Meopatra took flight with the Pvgy])tian ships. 
'I'he infatuated Antony followed, deserting his fleet and army. 
Once more the West had won. (Meopatra, last of the Ptole- 
mies, soon took poison rather than grace Octavius' triumph 
and Kgypt l)eeaine a Roman ])ro\ince. 

For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, II, Nos. 50-54 ; and 
on Cae.sar's constructive work, Warde-Fowler's Caesar, 326-359. Dr. 
Davis' Friend oj Caesar (fiction) and Plutarch's Lives of Caesar, Poin- 
peiu<, and Cicero make admirable reading. 

Fact Drills 

1. List of important battles in Roman history to this point, with 
results of each. 

2. Dates, ('ontinued drill on the list given on p. 147. .\dd the 
following and group other dates around these : 

510(?) B.C. "Expulsion" of the kings. 

390(?) B.C. Sack of Rome by the Gauls; and in like manner, 
the events for 307, 200, 14G, 133, 49, 31 b.c. 



PLATE XXXI 





Above. — Roman Forum, northeast side, to-day. 

Below. — Roman Forum, same as above, as it was in Roman times, accord- 
ing to the " restoration," by Benvenuti. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

THE EMPERORS OF THE FIRST TWO CENTURIES, 
31 B.C.-180 A.D. 

Octavius spent the first two years after Actium in restoring Augustus, 
order in the East. On his return to Rome in 29 B.C., the gates J^ ^ .p' 
of the Temple of Janus were closed, in token of the reign 
peace. ^ By prudent and generous measures, he soon brought 
back prosperity to long distracted Italy, and in 27 he laid down 
his office of triumvir (which had become a sole dictatorship) and 
declared the Republic restored. In fact, the Empire was safely 
established. 

Republican forms, indeed, were respected even more scrupu- Under 
lously than by Julius Caesar. But supreme power lay in Octa- [qJ^^s^^^^ 
vius' hands as Imperator, — master of the legions. This office 
he kept, and the Senate now added to it the new title Augustus, 
which had before been used only of the gods. It is by this 
name that he is thenceforth known. He was so popular that 
he did not need the open support of the army — which he 
stationed mostly on the frontiers. He lived more simply than 
many a noble, and walked the streets like any citizen, charming 
all whom he met by his frankness and courtesy. 

Augustus ruled forty-five years after Actium, carrying out 
the policies of the great Julius, and renewing, for the last time, 
the work of founding colonies outside Italy. Peace reigned ; 
order was established ; industry revived. Marshes were 
drained, and roads were built. A census of the whole Empire 
was taken, and many far-distant communities were granted 
Roman citizenship. Augustus himself tells us, in a famous 
inscription that in one year he began the rebuilding of eighty. 
two temples ; and of Rome he said, — "I found it brick, and 

^ These gates were always open when the Romans were engaged in any 
war. In all Roman history, they had been closed only twice before, — and 
one of these times was in the legendary reign of King Numa. 

211 



212 



KAlvM.V KOMAX KMPIKK. 'M H.r.-lsO A.I). 



li;i\(' left it marldc." lie was also a <^M'n(M'()Us j)atr()n of litera- 
ture and art. TIk' " Aii^'ustaii A^^c" is the <;()l(i('n age oF Latin 
literature. 

\t t\\c (leatli of Aii^Mistiis, the Senate decreed liim di\ine 

honors. Temples were erected 
in his honor, and he was wor- 
shiped as a <i:o(l. Such worship 
seems impious to us, })ut to the 
Romans it was cr)nneete(l with 
tlie idea of ancestor worship 
and witli tiie worshij) of an- 
cient heroes, and was a way 
of recogni/in^^ tlie Emperor as 
"the father of all his people." 
The practice was a(loj)ted for 
tlie successors of Augustus, 
and this worship of dead em- 
perors .soon became a general 
and widespread religious rite, 
th(> only religion common to 
tlie whole Roman world, — 
l)in(ling together the dwellers 
on tlie Euphrates, the Nih', 
tlie Tiber, the Rhone, and the 
Tagus. 

But shortly licfore this wor- 
ship began, when the reign of 
.\ugustus was a little more 
tlian half g<)n(\ there was 
l)orn ilia manger in an obscure 
the Roman world, the child 
was to replace 




AuUfSTCH ('aK.SAK. .\ St.ltlK- 

in the Vatican, Rome. 



hamlet of a distant corner of 

Jesus, whose r<'ligion, after some centuri( 

the worship of dead ciiij)erors and all other religious faitli 

of the pagan world. 



At .\ugustus' death, every one recognized that some one must 
be appointed to succeed him, and the Senate at once granted 



STORY OF THE EMPERORS 213 

his titles and authority to his stepson Tiberius, whom he had Tiberius, 
" recommended " to them. Tiberius was stern, morose, suspi- ^^~^'^ ^^• 
cious, but an able, conscientious ruler. The nobles of the capital 
conspired against him, and were punished cruelly. The popu- 
lace of Rome, too, hated him because he abolished the Assembly 
where they had sold their votes, and because he refused to 
amuse them with gladiatorial sports. Therefore Tiberius 
established a permanent body of soldiers {praetorian guards) 
in the capital ; and he encouraged a system of paid spies. With 
reason the people of Rome looked upon him as a gloomy tyrant. 
But in the provinces he was proverbial for fairness, kindness, and 
good government. " A good shepherd shears his sheep, he does not 
flay them," was one of his sayings. In this reign occurred the 
crucifixion of Christ. 

Tiberius had adopted a grand nephew as his heir, and the Caligula, 
Senate confirmed the appointment. This youth (Caligula) 37-41 
had been a promising boy ; but now he suddenly became an 
insane monster, and was slain finally by officers of his guard. 

Caligula had named no successor. For a moment the Senate Claudius 
hoped to restore the old Republic ; but the praetorians (devoted 41-54 
to the great Julian line) hailed Claudius, an uncle of Caligula, 
as Imperator, and the Senate had to confirm the appointment. 
Claudius had been a timid, awkward scholar and an author of 
tiresome books ; but now he gave his time faithfully to the hard 
work of governing, with good results. His reign is famous 
for a great extension of citizenship to provincials, for legislation 
to protect slaves against cruel masters, and for the conquest of 
southern Britain. 

Nero, Claudius' stepson, became Emperor as a likable boy Nero, 54-68 
of sixteen. He had been trained by the philosopher Seneca 
(p. 226), and for two thirds of his reign he was guided by wise 
ministers. He cared little for affairs of government, but was 
fond of art, and ridiculously vain of his skill in music and poetry 
and he sought popular applause also as a gladiator. After some 
years his fears, together with a total lack of principle, led him 



214 



KAKL^ KOMAN KMPIKK. ;il H.(\-1S() A.I). 




to criiiK' and tyranny. Wcaliliy n()l)lr> were put to death in 
numbers, and their j)roperty confiscated, Seneca himself l)eint; 
amon^ the victims. 
The burn- During this reign, luilf of liuinc wiui laid in aahis by the " (Jreat 

ing of Rome p-^^., (d.^^.j^' Readings, II, No. 65). In the densely poptdated 
parts of the city, many-storied, cheap, flimsy tenement hou.ses 
projected their upper floors nearly across tbe narrow, crooked 

thoroughfares, so that the fire leaped 
easily from side to side. For six 
days and nights the flames raged 
unchecked, surging in billows over 
the slopes and through the valleys 
of the Seven Hills. By some, Nero 
was believed to have ordered the de- 
struction, in order that \\v might 
rebuild in more magnificent fashion. 
On better authority he was reported 
to have at least enjoyed the spec- 
tacle from the roof of his palace, 
singing a poem lie had composed on 
the " Bm-ning of Troy." 
The new sect of Christians also were accused of starting tli(^ 
fii-e, out of tl)eir supposed "hatred for tiu> lunnan race," and 
because they had so often declared that a fiery destruction of 
the world was coming. To turn attention from himself, Nero 
took u]) the charge against them, and carried out the first 
persecution of the Christianas', one of the most cruel in all history. 
Victims, tarred with pitch, were burned as torches in the imperial 
gardens, to light the indecent re\-elry of the court at night ; 
and others, clothed in the skins of animals, were torn l)y dogs 
for the amusement of the niol). Tlie persecution, howe\'er, 
was confined to the capital. 

Nero's disgraceful rule finally roused the legions on the fron- 
tiers to rebel ; and to avoid capture, he stabbed hims(^lf. (>\e]aim- 
ing, "What a pity for such an artist to die ! " 



Bronze Coin of Nero — to 
roniniemoriite the closing of 
the doors of the Tenijile of 
Janus (of. p. 211. note). 



Nero's 
persecution 
of Christians 



The \'ear 09 a.d. was one of wild confusion and war between 



PLATE XXXIII 




I'khmphal Arch of Titus (showing the ('olo.ssoum in tho distaiiro). (Cf. 
Phito XXXVII faciuK p. 228.) The Iriuniphal arch, spanning a city 
street like a gate, was a favorite decf»rative application of the ar<'h by 
the Romans to commemorate victories. For an Egyptian model, see 
illustration after p. 10. Napoleon's famous Arch of Triumph at Paris is a 
modern imitation. Tor the position of the Arch of Titus in the Roman 
Forum, see Plate facing p. 207. 



STORY OF THE EMPERORS 



215 



several rivals. Finally the powerful legions in Syria "pro- 
claimed" their general, Flavins Vespasianus, who quickly became 
master of the Empire. He and his sons are known as Flavians ^ 
(from his first name). He was the grandson of a Sabine laborer, 
and was blunt and coarse, but honest, industrious, and capable. 
He hated sham ; and at the end, as he felt the hand of death 



Vespasian, 
70-79 




Detail from the Triumphal Arch op" Titus (opposite), showing Jewish 
captives and the seven-branched candlestick taken from the Temple at 
Jerusalem. 

upon him, he said, with grim irony, "I think I am becom- 
ing a god," — in allusion to the worship of dead emperors. 

In this reign came the destruction of Jerusalem. Judea 
had been made a tributary state by Pompey (63 B.C.), and in 
4 A.D. it became a Roman province. But the Jews were restless 
under foreign rule, and in the year 66, in Nero's time, a national 
uprising drove out the Roman officers. This rebellion was now 
put down by Vespasian and his son Titus. In 70 a.d. Titus 
captured Jerusalem, after a stubborn siege. He had offered 

1 The preceding five emperors (descendants-in-law of Julius Caesar) are 
known as the Julian line. They had been Romans ; the Flavians came from 
Italy outside Rome. Their aucccssurs were provincials. 



210 



KAIvLV KOMVX KMIMI^K, 31 B.(\ ISO A.D. 



Pompeii 
destroyed 
by Vesu- 
vius 

Domitian, 
81-96 



lilxTuI terms; hut \\\v starvin^^ Jews made n frenzied rcsistancr, 
and wlieii the walls were finally stormed, many of them slew 
their women and c'hil(lr(>n and died in the flames. The miserable 
remnant for the most ])art were sold into slavery. (Only 



^mm 



Wf!§., 



•r.!i,^ 






Dktail from Tk.uan's Column (opposite) : Trajan sacrificing a bull at 
the bridge over the Danube, just completed by his soldiers. This bridge 
was a remarkable structure, — probably the most wonderful bridge in the 
world imtil the era of iron and steel bridge-work in the nini^teenth century- 

ree(>ntl\', dnrin<,^ th(> World War, was a project started to re- 
estahlish a Jewish state in Palestine.) 

Titus had heen associated in the ^oviM-nment with his father. 
The most famous event of his two years' rei.uMi was the (frsfruc- 
tion of Ponqxii (lud llcrniUnuum h}/ l^rsuviuii (Plate XXIV). 

Domitian, Noim^er brother of Titus, was a stronjx, stern 
ruler. He built a famous wall :VM\ miles lon<;, to comph-te the 
northern boundary from the Rhine to the Danube — a line of 
forts joined to one another by earthen ram]Kirts ; and he took 
the oflfice of Censor for life, and so coidd le^allx make and un- 
make senators at w ill. This led the Ronum nobles to conspire 
against him and fin;dl\ he was assassinated. 



PLATE XXXIV 




Trajan's Column, coninicmorating the Daoian conquest. It is 100 feet 
high, and the spiral bands of sculpture that circle it contain 2500 figures. 
It is the finest survival of a favorite Roman form of monument. Cf. 
p. 32 for an earlier model. See a detail opposite. 



STORY OF THE EMPERORS 217 

The Senate chose the next ruler from its own number ; and Nerva, 
that emperor with his four successors are known as the five ^""^^ 
good emperors. The first of the five was Nerva, an aged 
senator of Spanish descent, who died after a kindly rule of six- 
teen months. 

Trajan, the adopted son of Nerva, was a Spaniard Trajan, 
and a great general. He conquered and colonized Dacia, ^ ~^^'^ ^ 
a vast district north of the Danube, and then attacked the 
Parthians in Asia, adding new provinces beyond the Eu- 
phrates. These victories mark the greatest extent of the Roman 
Empire. 

Hadrian, a Spanish kinsman of Trajan, succeeded him. Hadrian, 
Wisely and courageously, he abandoned most of Trajan's ^'7-i3 
conquests in Asia (disregarding the sneers and murmurs of 
nobles and populace), and withdrew the frontier there to the old 
line of the Euphrates, more easily defended. He looked to the 
fortification of other exposed frontiers. His most famous work 
of this kind was a wall in Britain, from the Solway to the Tyne, 
to keep out the unconquered Picts of the northern highlands.^ 

Hadrian spent most of his twenty years' rule in inspecting 
the provinces. Now he is in Britain, now in Dacia ; again in 
Gaul, or in Africa, Syria, or Egypt. He spent several months 
in Asia Minor, and in Macedonia ; and twice he visited Athens, 
his favorite city, which he adorned with splendid buildings. 

Hadrian was followed by Antoninus Pius, a pure and gentle Antoninus 
spirit, the chief feature of whose peaceful rule was legislation ^g^' ^ 
to prevent cruelty to slaves. On the evening of his death, when 
asked by the officer of the guard for the watchword for the night, 
Antoninus gave the word Equanimity, which might have served 
as the motto of his life. (Davis' Readings gives a noble tribute 
to his character by his successor.) 

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, nephew and adopted son of 

1 This "Wall of Hadrian" was seventy miles long, extending almost 
from sea to sea. Considerable portions can still be traced. It consisted 
of three distinct parts : (1) a twenty-foot stone wall and ditch, on the north ; 
(2) a double earthen rampart and ditch, about one hundred and twenty 
yards to the south ; and (3) between wall and rampart a series of fourteen 
fortified camps connected by a road. 



218 



KAKLV UOMAX KMIMKK, M B.C. ISO A.U. 



Marcus 
Aurelius, 
i6i i8o 



Commodus. 
180-192 



Antoninus Pius, was a iihllosophrr and sfudcfit. \\v helongod 
to tlu' Stoic school, l)ut in him that stern j)hil()S()phy was softened 
l)y a gracious gentleness. His tastes made him wisli to con- 
tinue in his father's footsteps, hut lie had fallen ui)on harsher 
times. The harharians renewed their attacks upon the Danube, 
the Rhine, and the Kui)hrates. The emj^eror and his lieu- 




KliNs (ir A Ikmi'LK I \ r Atiikns li; ii.i my Hadui.w. — Xoto the 

Coriiitliiaii style {\). 7 J) and tho Acropolis in \\w hackjiiouiul. 

tenants heat them hack, only at the cost of almost incessant 
war; and the gentle phil()so])her li\-ed and wrote and died in 
camj). A great Asiatic plague, loo. de])opulated the Empire 
and demoralized society. The i)o])ulace thought the diseasr 
a visitation from offendcMl gods, and were frantically e.\cite( 
against the unj)o])ular sect of Christians who refused to worship 
the gods of Rome. Thus the reign of the kindl\- Aurelius wm> 
marked hy a cruel |)ersecution. 

Marcus .\urelius' son, Counnodus, was an infamous wretch 
whose reign hegins the period of decay. 

For Fukthkk Kk.\din(;. — Davi.s' Headings, II, No. 56 (Augustus' 
own account of his work) and No. 59, and Capes' Early Empire, 
especially ch. i. 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE EARLY EMPIRE : GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY 

Republican Rome had little to do . . . with modern life: imperial 
Rome, everything. — Stille. 

The early emperors did not invent much nnv political machin- The " Prin- 
ery. Following the example of Julius Caesar, each one merely ^^P^*® 
concentrcdrd in his own person the most important offices of the 
Republic, — powers which had originally been intended to check 
one another. He could appoint and degrade senators; he led 
the debates in the Senate — and coidd control its decrees, which 
had become the chief means of lawmaking. He appointed the 
governors of the provinces, the generals of the legions, the city 
prefect, the head of the city police, and the prefect of the prae- 
torians. Each successor of Augustus was hailed Imperedor 
Caesar Augustus. (The title Caesar survived till recently, in 
Kaiser and in Tsar.) 

The Roman world was a broad belt of land stretching east Life under 

and west, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, with the Mediter- *^® Empire 

, concen- 

ranean for its central highway. On the south it was bounded trated in 

by sandy deserts, African and Arabian ; on the north, bv stormv .^"^" 
waters ; and at the weaker gaps — on the Rhine, the Danube, 
the Euphrates, and at the Walls of Domitian and Hadrian — 
stood mighty sleepless legions to watch and ward. 

Within this vast territory, about as large as the United States, 
were 75,000,000 people. They lived mostly in cities (muni- 
cipia) large and small, throbbing w^th industry and with intel- 
lectual life and possessing some loccd self-government in those 
municipal institutions they were to pass on to us. Stockaded 
villages had changed into stately marts of trade, huts into pal- 
aces, footpaths into paved roads. Roman irrigation made 
part of the African desert the garden of the world (where to-day 

219 



220 



IvVKI.V ROM AX KMPIRE — TO ISO A.D. 



only desolate ruins mock the eye), and the symbol of Africa 
was a gracious virgin with arms filled with sheaves of golden 
grain. Gaul (France) was Romanized late, after Julius Caesar; 
but in the third century a.d. that district had IK) flourishing 
cities, with pul)lic baths, temples, acjueducts,* roads, and famous 
schools that drew Roman xouth r\vn from the Tiber's banks. 




Aqubduct near NiMES. Franck, huilt tihout 150 a.d. l)y tho Kniperor Aii- 
tDiiinus Pius to .supply the city with wiiter from mountain springs 25 
miles distant; present condition of the long Kra>- structure, where it 
crosses the (Jard River. Water pipes were carried through hills })y tun- 
nels and across streams and valle\s on arches like these. This acjueduct 
has vanished (its stoties used for other buildings) except for this part; but 
here it i-^ still |)ossible to walk through the pipes on the top row of arches. 



Most towns were ])1a('es of 20, 000 jx-oj)!!- or less, and usually 
each one was merely the center of a farming district ; but there 
were also a few great centers of trade. — Ronu\ with j)erhaps 
•J. 000. ()()() pc<)j)lc ; Alc\;iii(hia (in l\u\ j)! ) aiul .Xntioch (in .Vsia) 

■ The water supply of many large cities was better than that of large 
cities to-dav. and the same is true of public baths — which in Rome could 
care for 00,000 people at a time. 



TOWN LIFE 221 

with 500,000 each ; and Corinth, Carthage, Ephesus, and Lyons, 
with some 250,000 apiece. 

These commercial cities were likewise centers of manufac- Industry 
tares. The Emperor Hadrian visited Alexandria (about 125 ^"^ *^**^® 
A.D.) and wrote in a letter : " No one is idle ; some work glass ; 
some make paper (papyrus) ; some weave linen. Money is 
the only god." The looms of Sidon and the other old Phoeni- 
cian cities turned forth ceaselessly their precious purple cloths. 
Miletus, Rhodes, and other Greek cities of the Asiatic coast 
were famous for their woolen manufactures. Syrian factories 
poured silks, costly tapestries, and fine leather into western 
Europe. Each town had many gilds of artisans (p. 171). In 
Rome the bakers' gild listed 254 shops ; and the silversmiths 
of Ephesus were numerous enough {Ads xix, 23-41) to stir 
up a formidable riot. (Slaves did most of the unskilled labor ; 
and a baker or mason would have two or three or a dozen to 
work under his direction.) 

The roads were safe. Piracy ceased from the seas, and trade Communica- 

flourished as it was not to flourish again until the days of Co- *^°^ J^^ f ®^ 

. . . . and land 

lumbus. The ports were crowded with shipping, and the Medi- 
terranean was spread with happy sails (ships not very different 
from those in which Columbus w^as to cross the Atlantic). 
The grand military roads ran in trunk-lines — a thousand 
miles at a stretch — from every frontier toward the central 
heart of the Empire, with a dense network of branches in every 
province. Guidebooks described routes and distances. Inns 
abounded. The imperial couriers that hurried along the great 
highways passed a hundred and fifty milestones a day. Private 
travel from the Thames to the Euphrates was swifter, safer, 
and more comfortable than ever again until the age of railroads, 
less than a century ago. 

The products of one region of the Empire were known in every Commerce 
other part. Women of the Swiss mountains wore jewelry made 
by the silversmiths of Ephesus ; and gentlemen in Britain and 
in Cilicia drank wines made in Italy. One merchant of Phrygia 
(in Asia Minor) asserts on his gravestone that he had sailed 
'' around Greece to Italy seventy-two times." 



009 



EARLY ROMAN EAfPTRE — TO ISO A.D. 



And int'ii traveled for j)leasnre as well as for husiness. One 
lun^'ua^^e answered all needs from London to liahylon, and it was 
as eonnnon for tlie jjentlenian of GanI to \ isit the wonders of 
Rome or of the Nile as for the American to-da\ to spend a sum- 
mer in England or France, ((^iiite in modern fashion, such trav- 
elers defaced precious monuments witli scrawls. The colossal 




Thk lii.At K G.\TK {Porta Ni(ji'o,), a Jloman structuiv at Tnii v l"it'\ ts). 
Cf. ti'xt on p. 22.'i. — Tliat .sjitnc frontior cit>' contains other faiiiou.s 
lioniaii ruins : cf. I'Jiirh/ Pnu/rtss, p. 'ASi). 

K^yjjtian statue ])ictin'cd after |). '27 i)ears a scratclied inscrij)- 
tion that a certain Roman "(l«'inullus with his dear wife 
Rufilla" had \isit((l it.) 

There was also a \ ast connucrce w itii regions Ik i/ond tin hotuid- 
r/r/r.s- of ffir Enijiirc. As Ln^disli and l)iilch traders, three hun- 
dred years ap), journeyed far into the sa\ a^^e interior of America 
for l)t'tter har^Mins in furs, so the indomitahle Ronum traders 
pressed on into re^dons wliere the Roman leuions nexcr camped. 
From the Raltic shores the\- hrouLrht l)ack amher. fur, and 



TRADE, TRAVEL, AND PEACE 223 

flaxen German hair with which the dark Roman ladies liked to 
adorn their heads. Such goods the trader bought cheaply with 
toys and trinkets and wine. A Latin poet speaks of "many 
merchants" who reaped "immense riches" by daring voyages 
over the Indian Ocean "to the mouth of the Ganges." India, 
Ceylon, and Malaysia sent to Europe indigo, spices, pearls, 
sapphires, drawing away, in return, vast sums of Roman gold 
and silver. And from shadowy realms beyond India came 
the silk yarn that kept the Syrian looms busy. Chinese annals- 
tell of Roman traders bringing to Canton glass and metal wares, 
amber, and drugs — and speak also of an embassy from Marcus 
Aurelius. 

In 212 A.D. the long process of extending citizenship was com- The world 
pleted by an imperial decree making all free inhabitants of the ^^^^^^ 
Empire full citizens. This wiped out all remaining distinctions 
between Italy and the former "provinces"; and the later 
emperors were more at home at York or Cologne or at some 
capital by the Black Sea than at old Rome — which perhaps 
they visited only once or twice for some solemn pageant. 

This widespread, happy society rested in "the good Roman Peace and 

peace" for more than two hundred vears, — from the reign P^°^P®" y 
^ ' '^ for 200 years 

of Augustus Caesar through that of Marcus x\urelius, or from 
31 B.C. to 180 A.D. No other part of the world so large has 
ever known such unbroken prosperity and such freedom from 
the waste and horror of war for so long a time. Feie troops 
were seen within the Empire, and "the distant clash of arms 
[with barbarians] on the Euphrates or the Danube scarcely 
disturbed the tranquillity of the Mediterranean lands." 

The "Roman" army had become a body of disciplined mer- 
cenaries, with intense pride in the Roman name. More and 
more the legions were renewed V)y enlistment on the frontiers 
where they were stationed, and in the third century barbarians 
became a large part of the army. From the hungry foes surging 
against its walls, the Empire drew^ the guardians of its peace. 
At the expiration of their twenty years with the eagles,^ the 

' The Roman military standard became the model for late European gov- 
ernments that claimed to succeed Rome. 



224 



EARLY I^OMAN EMPIRE — TO ISO AD. 



vrtcrans Ix-canu' Roman citizens, no matter where recruited; 
and commonly tliey were settled in colonies with grants of land. 
Tims they helped mix the nuiny races of Rome into one. Span- 
ish troops in Switzerland, Swiss in Britain, Ciauls in Africa, 
Africans in Armenia, settled and married far from the lands 
of their hirth. 

A few of the emj)erors at Rome, like Nero and Caligula, 
were weak or wicked ; hut their follies and vices concerned 
only the nobles of the capital. The Empire as a whole went 
on with- little change during their short reigns. To the vast 
body of the people of the Roman world, the crimes of an occa- 
sional tyrant were unknown. To them he seemed (like the 
good emperors) merely the symbol of the peace and prosperity 
which enfolded them. 

In language, and somew'hat in culture, the If'r.v/ rental tied 
Ldtiu, (ind ihc KaM,^ Greek; but trade, travel, and the mild 
and just Roman law made the world one in feeling, liriton, 
African, Asiatic, knew one another only as Romans. An 
Egyptian Greek of the period expressed this world-wide patri- 
otism in a noble ode, closing, — 

"Though wo troad Rhone's or Orontos'- shore, 
Yet are we all one nation ovcrniore." 



The 

universities 
and gram- 
mar 
schools 



Painting and sculptin*e followed the old Greek models ; but 
the Roman art was architecture. Many of the world's most 
famous buildings belong to the Early Empire. Ronum archi- 
tecture had more massive grandem-, and was fonder of orna- 
ment, than the Greek. Instead of the simple Doric or Ionic 
columns it commonly used the ricli Corinthian, and it added, for 
its own especial features, the noble Roman arch and the dome. 

Rome, .Mexandria, and Athens were the three great centers 
of learning, l^ach had its iinirer.sity, with \ ast libraries and 
many ])r()fessorshii)s. \'esj)asian began the practice of paying 
salaries from the |)ublic treasury, and under Marcus Aurelius 
the government began to provide perjnaueut endowments (of 

' The Adriatic may ho taken as a convenient line of division (p. 182). 
- A river of Asia Minor. 



PLATE XXXV 




Thk I^\^•THK(»^' To-day: "Shriiio of all saints and tciiiplo of all ^ods." 
(Re:id the rest of Byron's fine description in Canto IV of ( "hilde Harold.) 
Agrippa. victor of Actium and chief minister of Augustus, built this 
tenii)lc in thc('arni)us Martins; and it was rebuilt, in its present form, 
by Hadrian — who, however, left the inscription in honor of Agrippa. 
The structure is 132 feet in diameter and of the same height, surmounted 
by a majestic dome that originally fla.shed with tiles of bronze. The 
interior is broadly flooded with light from an aperture in the dome 20 
feet in diameter. The inside walls were formed of splendid columns of 
yellow marble, with gleaming white capitals .supporting noble arches, 
upon which again rested more pillars and another row of arches — up to 
the base of the dome (.see section opposite). I'ndcr the arches, in 
pillared recesses, stood the statues of the gods of all religions, for this 
grand temple was .symbolic of the grander toleration and unity of the 
Roman world. Time lias dealt gently with it, and almost alone of the 
buildings of its day it has lasted t.«» ours, to be used now as a Christian 
church. 



ART AND LEARNING 



225 



which only the iricome could be used each year), as we do for 
our universities. The leading subjects were Latin and Greek 
literature, rhetoric, philosophy, music, arithmetic,^ geometry, and 
astronomy.'^ Law was a specialty at Rome, and medicine at 
Alexandria. Every important city in the Empire had its 
well-equipped grammar school, corresponding to an advanced 
high school or small college; and like the universities, to 
which they led, they had permanent endowments from the 
Roman government. 

All this education was for the upper cla^'ses, but occasionally 
bright boys from the lower classes found some wealthy patron 



Schools for 
the poor 







w~w 




F-|^^^^»V 




Cross-section of the Pantheon. 

to send them to a good school, and rich men and women some- 
times bequeathed money to schools in their home cities for the 
education of poor children. Davis' Readings (II, No. 80) tells 
of such an endowment, and (No. 79) repeats Horace's story of 
how his father, a poor farmer, gave him the education that 
made it possible for him to become one of the most famous 
of poets. 



^ Arithmetic was an adv^anced subject when Roman numerals were 
used. 

^ The first three subjects, the literary group, were the tritium; the last 
four, the mathematical group, were the quadrivium. 



226 



EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE — TO 180 AD. 



Litorafurc |)lay(Hl a small part in Roman life until just before the 
Empire. Thr following lists of names for the four periods, down to 
Mareus Aurelius, are for referenee only. 

1. The "Age of Cicero," gave us Lucretius, perhaps the most sublime 
of all Latin poets, and Caesar's concise historical narrative. Cicero 
himself remains the foremost orator of Rome and the chief master of 
the graceful Latin prose essay. 

2. For the "Augustan Age" only a few of (he many imi)<)rtant 
writers can be mentioned. Horace (son of an Apulian frcedman) wrote 
graceful odes and playful satires. Vergil (from Cisalpine Gaul), the 
chief Roman poet, is best known to schoolboj^s by his epic, the Aerieid, 
but critics rank higher his Georgics, exquisite poems of country life. 
Livy (Cisalpine Gaul) and Dionysius (an Asiatic Greek) wrote great 
histories of Rome. Straho (living at Alexandria) produced a geograi^hy 
of the Roman world, and speculated on the possibility of a continent 
in the Atlantic between Europe and Asia. 77;c last two authors wrote 
in Greek. 

3. To the second half of the first century belong another host of 
great names : among them, Pliuy the Elder {of Cisalpine Gaul), a scien- 
tist who perished at the eruption of Vesuvius in his zeal to observe the 
phenomena; the Stoic philosophers Epictetus, a Phrygian slave, and 
Seneca, a noble of Spanish l)irth. 

4. For the second century, we have the charming Letters of Pliny 
the Younger, a Cisalpine Gaul ; the satirical poetry of the Italian 
Jurenal; the philosophical and religious Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius; 
the histories and biographies {in Greek) of Appian, an Alexandrian, 
of Plutarch, a Boeotian, and (in Latin) of the Roman Tacitus. Science 
is represented chiefly by Galen, an Asiatic, who wrote Greek treatises 
on medicine, and by Ptolemy, an Egyptian astronomer, whose geog- 
rai)hy was the standard authority until the time of Columbus. (Ptol- 
emy unhappily abandoneil the truer teachings of Aristarchus and 
Eratosthenes (p. 146), and taught that the heavens revolved about 
the earth for their center.) 

Tjidcr tlic Kiupirc morals ^ncw ^^'iitlc, and nianncrs were 
refined. The Lrticrs of Pliny reveal a society bigb-niinded, 
j)()lit(', and virtuous. Pliny himself is a type of the finest 
gentleman of to-day in delicacy of feeling, sensitive honor, and 
genial conrt(^sy. Marcus Aurelius shows like qualities on the 
throne. The j)hilosopher Epictetus shows them in a slave. Fu- 
neral inscriptions show tender affection. Over the grave of a 
little girl tluTc is inscribed, — "She rests here in the soft cradle 
of the Earth . . . comcl.w charming, keen of mind, gay in talk 



PLATE XXXVI 




The Way of Tombs at Pompeii. — Each Roman city buried its dead out- 
side one of its gates along the highway, which therefore was lined for a 
great distance with marble monuments or the simpler raised headstones 
that are also shown in this picture. The ruins shown alongside the 
Appian Way (p. 166) are tombs and monuments. The disorders of later 
centuries destroyed most of these monuments in Italy, though we do still 
have many interesting inscriptions from them. At Pompeii the volcanic 
covering preserved them almost intact. A husband inscribes upon his 
wife's monument : " only once did she cause me sorrow ; and that was by 
her death." Another praises in his wife "purity, loyalty, affection, a sense 
of duty, a gentle nature, and whatever other qualities God would wish 
to give woman." The tombstone of a poor physician declares that "to all 
the needy he gave his services without charge." 



MORALS 



227 



and play. If there be ought of compassion in the gods, bear her 
aloft to the light." In the Thoughts ^ of Marcus Aurelius the 
emperor thanks the gods " for a good grandfather, good parents, 
a good sister, and good friends," and (stating his obligations to 
various associates), — "From my mother I learned piety, and 
to abstain not merely from evil deeds but from evil thoughts." 
Again a jotting in camp (on the borders of Germany) reads, — 
"When thou wishest to delight thyself think of the virtues of 
those who live with thee." 

Sympathies broadened. The unity of the vast Roman world 
prepared the way for a feeling of human brotherhood. Said 
Marcus Aurelius, " As emperor I am a Roman ; l)ut as a man 

my city is the world." 

The age prided itself, 

justly, upon its progress 

and its humanity, much 

as our own does. The 

Emperor Trajan instructed 

a provincial governor not 

to act upon anonymous 

accusations, because such 

conduct "does not belong 

to our age." There was 

a vast amount of private 

and public charity, with 

homes for orphans and 

hospitals for the poor. 

Woman, too, won more 

freedom than she was to 

find again until after 1850 

A.D. The profession of 

medicine was open to her, and law recognized her as the equal 

of man. 

This broad humanity was reflected in imperial law. The 
harsh law of the Republic became humane. Women, children, 

1 One of the world's noblest books, closer to the spirit of Christ than any 
other pagan writing. Davis' Readings gives some excellent extracts. 




Marcus Aurelius, a bust now in the 
Capitoline Museum. 



Broader 

human 

sympathies 



More hu- 
mane law 



228 EARl.V KOMAX EMPIRE — TO ISO AD. 

and even dimil) Ix'asts sliared its protection. Torture was 
limited. The ri^dits of the accused were better recognized. 
From the Kmpire dates the maxim, "Better to let the guilty 
escajx' tlian to punish the innocent." "All men by the law of 
nature aic ('(pial " became a law ma.xim, through the great 
jurist Ulpian. Slavery, he argued, had been created only by 
the lower law, enacted not })y nature but by man. Therefore, 
if one man claimed another as his slave, the benefit of any 
possible doubt was to be given to the one so claimed. (It is 
curious to remember that the rule was just the other way in 
nearly all Christian countries tlirough the Middle Ages, and in 
the I'nited States under the Fugitive Slave laws from 1793 to 
the (^ivil War.) 

True, there was a darker side. During some r(Mgn.'^ the court 
was rank with hideous del)aucliery, and at all times the rabble 
of Rome, made up of the off-scourings of all peoples, was 
ignorant and vicious. Some evil customs that shock us were 
])art of the age. To avoid cost and trouble, the lower classes, 
with horrible freciuency and indifference, exj)osed their infants to 
die. Satirists, as in our own day, railed ;it the growth of diNorce 
among the rich. Slavery threw its shadow across the Roman 
world. At the gladiatorial sports — so strong is fashion — 
di'licate ladies thronged the benches of the amphitheater with- 
out shrinking at the agonies of the dying. 

For Further Reading. — Davis' Readings, II, to No. 108. For 
thasc who wish to read further on this important period, the best and 
mast readable material will be found in Jones' Roman Empire (an ex- 
eollcnt one-volnme work), rhs. i-vi ; Capes' Earlif Empire and The 
A}itonin'-s: Thoin.'Ls' Roman Life; Preston and Dodge's Private Life of 
the Romana; or Jolm.ston's Private Life of the Romans. 



PLATE XXXVII 




i 1 I 1 i 1 2' 1 I 








Above. — The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) at Rome, built by Ves- 
pasian and Titus, It covers six acres, and the walls rise 150 feet. It 
seated 45,000 spectators. For centuries, in the Middle Ages, its ruins were 
used as a stone quarry for palaces of Roman nobles, but its huge size pre- 
vented complete destruction. Cf. page 208, and Plate XXXIX. 

Below. — Interior View of the Colosseum. The human figures in the 
arena give some idea of the size of the building. 



PLATE XXXVIII 




Tl{AJA\'s 'luilMI'HAI. Arc li M I.. 

or.ilitiji his \ icldi it'> 



■ iiiMiii ill Soulli It;il.\, <i niiiiciii- 
Ihf Ivist (cf. p. LM7). 



the third 
century 



CHAPTER XXVI 
THE LATER EMPIRE 

The hopeless feature of the Roman Empire ivas the absence of 
liberty. The Roman world, in the first two centuries, was 
happy, contented, prosperous, and well-governed, but not 
free. Even its virtues had something of a servile tone. More- 
over, throughout the provinces, as in Italy earlier, great land- 
lords were crowding the small farmers off the land, and that 
yeoman class were giving way to slave or serf tillers of the soil. 

And so the third century began a period of swift decline. For Decline in 
a time despotism had served as a medicine for anarchy (p. 206), 
"but now its poison began to show. Weak or vicious rulers 
followed one another in ruinous succession. The throne be- 
came the sport of the soldiery. Ninety-two years (193-284 
A.D.) saw twenty-semn ''barrack emperors'' set up by the army. 
All but four of these were slain in some revolt, and two of 
those four fell in battle against invading barbarians. 

Happily, the army wearied of disorder, and in 270 it set a AureUan, 
great leader upon the throne. Aurelian was an Illyrian peasant ^^0-275 
who had risen from the ranks. He ruled only five years, but 
his achievements rival those of the five years of the first Caesar. 
He reorganized the army and restored the boundaries, driving 
back the barbarians beyond the Danube and the Rhine, but 
abandoning Dacia (beyond the Danube) to the Teutonic Goths. 
Zenobia, the great queen who had set up a rival Arabian empire 
at Palmyra, he brought captive to Rome and he recovered 
Gaul, which some time before had broken away into a separate 
kingdom. 

At one moment in this busy reign, the Alemanni penetrated 
to the Po, and threw Italy into a panic. No hostile army 
had been seen in that peninsula since Hannibal — for almost 
five hundred years — and the proud capital had spread out 

229 



230 



ROMAN EMPIRIO — THIRD CENTURY 






iinjxuardcd far Ix'vond hrr early ramparts. Aurelian rrpulsed 
tlic iin adcrs and tluMi l)uilt new walls about Rome, — a somber 

sxnibol ot" ;i new au'c. 




romt: 

under the Empire 

SC»UE OF YARDS 



.WalU»fAurtlian 
OU"WaU^atrviu»" 



1. 


C'dlosscuni. 


2. 


Arcli of ( '<)iist;iiitiiie. 


li. 


Arch of Titus. 


4. 


\'ia Sacra- 


5. 


Via Nova. 


6. 


Vicus Tu.scii.s. 


7. 


Vicus JuRarivis. 


8. 


Arch of Scptimius 




Sovcrus. 


9. 


C'Hvus Capit^ihiius. 



10. T 



mplc of .Iiipit.T 1!). Th.-atrr of Marc'llus 



( 'apitoliiui 
Arch. 

Cohimn of 'Praj.-m 
Cohiinn of Auto 

ninus. 
Baths of ApTipjja- 
Pantheon. 
Theater of Ponip<'.v 
Portico of Ponip(\v 
( 'ircus FlaniiiiiMs. 



L'O. Forum Holitoruuu. 

21. Forum Boariuni. 

22. Mausoleum of AuRUstus 
2;i. Mausoleum of Hadrian. 

24. Baths of Constimtine. 

25. Baths of Diocletian. 
2(1. Baths of Titus. 

27. Baths of Caracalla. 

2s. .\niphitlieatrum Cas- 
trt'iise. 



Reorgan- -lu^t as .\iirrHan was rcad\' to take iij) internal rior.uanization, 

ization by ^\^.nxU snalchcd liiiu a\va\, and the taj^k fill to liis first strong 

Diocletian, ' p m • i 

284 305 siieeessor, Dioclrfian, i^nandson of an llhrian slave, ror more 



"BARRACK EMPERORS" 231 

convenient administration, this ruler divided the Roman world 
into an East and a West, along the dividing lines between the 
old Greek and Latin civilizations ; and each half he subdivided 
again and again into units of several grades — praefectures, 
dioceses, provinces. To care for these divisions, he then created 
a series of officers in regular grades, as in an army. Each 
was placed under the immediate direction of the one just above 
him, and the lines all converged from below to the emperor. 
Each official sifted all business that came to him from his sub- 
ordinates, and sent on to his superior only the more important 
matters. The earlier, loosely organized despotism had become a vast 
centralized despotism, a highly complex machine, which fixed re- 
sponsibility precisely and distributed duties in a workable w ay. 

Despotism was now avowed. Diocletian cast off the Repub- 
lican cloak of Augustus and adopted even the forms of Oriental 
monarchy. He wore a diadem of gems and robes of silk and 
gold, and fenced himself with multitudes of functionaries and 
elaborate ceremonial. The highest nobles, if allow^ed to ap- 
proach him, had to prostrate themselves at his feet. 

And the change was in more than form. The Senate became 
merely a city council for Rome : its advice was no longer asked 
in lawmaking. The emperor made laws by publishing edicts, 
or by sending a rescript (set of directions) to provincial governors. 
(The only other source of new law lay in the interpretation 
of old law by judges appointed by the emperor.) 

It is desirable for students to discuss fully these forms of Excursus: 
government. "Absolutism" refers to the source of pmver : j^ation " ' 
in an absolute monarchy, supreme power is in the hands of and "Abso- 
one person. "Centralization" refers to the kind of adminis- 
tration. A centralized administration is one carried on by 
officials of many grades, all appointed from above. Absolutism 
and centralizaticm. do not necessarily go together. A government 
may come from the people, and yet rule through a centralized 
administration, as in France to-day. It may be absolute, 
and yet allow much freedom to local agencies, as in Russia 
in past centuries. 



lutism " 



232 



ROMAN EMPIKK— FOURTH OENTURY 



Under a Napoleon or a Diocletian, a centralized govern- 
ment may j)ro(luce raj)i(l benefits. But it dors nothing to 
educate the people politicudli/. Local self-government i^ often 
pr')vokingUi slow, hut it is surer in the long run. 



The t'ourtli century showed outward prosperity, hut this 
a|)j)earanc(" was deceitful. The system of Diocletian warded off 
inrasion: hut its own weight was crushing. The Empire had 
become "a great tjix-gathering and l)ar])arian-fighting machine. 
It collected taxes /// order to fight barl)arians. But the tim(^ 
came when jx'ople feared the tax-collector more than the bar- 
l)arians, as the e()m])lex government came to cost more and 
mon\ About 400 a.d., the Empire began to crumble Ix'fore 
barl)arian attacks less formidable than many that had been 
rei)uti"ed in early centuries. Secret forces had heen sapping the 
strength and hefdth of tin Roman world. 

1. For the century following the pestilence of Marcus 
Ain-elius' reign, a series of terril)le Asiatic plagues swe])t off 
vast numbers ; but population had (dready hegun to decline. The 
main cause of this decay, ])robably, was the widespread slave 
system. The wealtliy classes of society do not luix'e large 
families. Our ])opulation to-day grows mainly from the working 
class. But in the Roman Empire the place of free workingnu'n 
was tiiken mainly l)y slaxcs. Slaves rarely liad families; and 
if they had, the master conuuonly "exjxjsed" slave children to 
<lie, since it was easier and eheajx'r to buy a new slaxe, from 
among (•ai)ti\c l»arl)arians. llian to rear one. Besides, the 
comj)et ition of slaxc labor ground into the dust what free 
labor there was ; so that free working ])eople could not afford 
to raise large families, but were drixcn to tln' cruel ])raetice 
of exj)osing tlieir infants, ^'ear after year, "the human liar- 
vest was bad." 

2. The pernicious alliance between the money j)ower and 
the government had grown closer. True. Oioeletian for a 
time sought to break it. charging that thr ruinous ri.s'i In the 
cost of tiring was due to eoml)inations of ca])italists to raise 
prices. He accused such combinations of "raging avarice" 



SWIFT DECAY 233 

and "unbridled desire for plunder," and, in a vain attempt 

to check the evil, he tried to fix by edict the highest price it 

should be lawful to ask for each of some eight hundred articles 

of daily use. Such an eifort (in that Aay at least) was doomed 

to fail. But it was the only effort of the government (after 

Caesar's time) to interfere on the side of the poor. No serious No serious 

attempt was made, after the early days of the Empire, to build ^J^^f^'^' 

up a new free peasantry by giving farms to the unemployed movement 

millions of the cities, as Gracchus and Caesar had tried to do. 

The noble landlords who shared among themselves the wide 

domains of Africa, Gaul, and Spain would have fought fiercely 

any attempt by the government to recover part of their domains 

to make homes for free settlers. 

But there is another side to the question. In the days of 
Gracchus and of Caesar, the city mob was made up, in good 
part, of ex-farmers, or of their sons, who had been driven from 
the land against their w411. But long before Diocletian's day, 
the rabble of Rome or Alexandria had lost all touch with country 
life. Sure of free doles of grain, sleeping in gateways, perhaps, 
but spending their days in the splendid free public baths or 
in the terrible fascination of gladiatorial games or of the chariot 
races, they could no longer be drawn to the simple life and hard 
labor of the farm — even if farming had continued profitable. 
We know that to-day, in America, hundreds of thousands of 
stalwart men prefer want and misery on the crowded sidewalks 
and under the white blaze of city lights, with a chance to squan- 
der a rare dime on "the movies," to the monotony and lone- 
liness of a comfortable living in the country. So in the ancient 
world, it was probably too late, when the Empire came, to 
wean the mob from its city life. 

3. The classes of society were becoming fixed. At the top Approach 
was the emperor. At the bottom were peasantry, artisans, gyg^gm^ ^ 
and slaves, to produce food and wealth wherewith to pay taxes. 
Between were two aristocracies, — a small imperial nobility 
of great landlords, and an inferior local nobility in each city. 

The landlord nobles had many special privileges. Through 
their influence upon the government and by bribery of officials 



234 



LATKK KOMAN KMIMKK 



" Privi- 
lege of 
the great 
lords 

The smaller 
nobility 



The old 
middle class 
disappeared 



tlicy ('scajxMl most of tlic hurdcn of taxation — whicli thoy 
were Ix^ttcr al)l(' to Ix^ar tlum tlic unhappy classes that jKiid. 
The local nobility (cnrials) were the families of the senate 
class in their respccti\(* cities. They, too, had ~somc special 
privilcfirs. They could not he drafted into the army or sub- 
jected to bodily |)unisinn('nt. They were compelled, however, 

to undergo great expenses 
in connection with the of- 
fices they had to fill. And, 
in particular, they were 
made r(>sponsible for the 
collection of the imperial 
taxes in their districts. 

This burden finally be- 
came so crushing: that 
many cnrials tried desper- 
ately to evade it, — even 
by sinking into a lower 
class, or by flight to the 
barbarians. Then, to secure 
the n^venue, law made them 
an hereditary- class. They 
wi'vv forbidden to become 
cl(M'g>-, soldiers, or lawyers ; 
tli(\\ were not allowed to 
or (xcn to travel without p(T- 



The artisans 




k5EKFS i\l.\KIN(i HHKAI) IN RoMAN Ga( !> 



from one cit \' to another 



mo\ 
mission. 

Between these local nobl(>s and the artisan class, then* had 
been, in the da> of th(> Karly Empin*, a much larger middle 
class of suiall laiul-owuers, merchants, bankers, and professional 
men. This middle class had now almost disappeared. Some 
were com])elled by law to take up the duties of the vanishing 
curials. More, in the financial ruin of the period, sank into 
the working class. 

Thr cofidifiofi of artis(i)is had lucouir drsprrair. An edict of 
Diocletian's regarding j)rici's and wages shows that a work- 
man received not more than one tenth the wagt^s of an Ameri- 



DEARTH OF MEN AND MONEY 235 

can workman of like grade, while food and clothing cost at 
least one third as much as in our time. His family rarely knew 
the taste of eggs or fresh meat. And now the law forbade him 
to change his trade. 

The 'peasantry had become serfs. That is, they were bound Farm labor 
to their labor on the soil, and changed masters with the land 5^°^^^^*° 
they tilled. 

When the Empire began, the system of great estates, 
which had blighted Italy earlier, had begun also to curse the 
provinces. Free labor disappeared before slave labor ; grain 
culture decreased, and large areas of land ceased to be tilled. 
To help remedy this state of affairs, and to keep up the 
food supply, the emperors introduced a new class of heredi- 
tary farm laborers. After successful wars, they gave large num- 
bers of barbarian captives to great landlords, — thousands in 
a batch, — not as slaves, but as serfs. 

The serfs were not personal propert^s as slaves were. They 
were part of the real estate. They, and their children after 
them, were attached to the soil, and could not be sold off it ; 
nor could it be taken from them so long as they paid the land- 
lord a fixed rent in labor and produce. This growth of serfdom 
made it still more difficult for the free small-farmer to hold his 
place. That class more and more sank into serfs. On the 
other hand, many slaves rose into serfdom. 

4. A fourth great evil was the lack of money. The Empire Lack of 
did not have sufficient supplies of precious metals for the de- ™®^®y 
mands of business ; and what money there was was steadily 
drained away to India and the distant Orient (p. 222). Even 

the imperial officers were forced to take part of their salaries 
in produce, — robes, horses, grain. Trade began to go back 
to the primitive form of barter ; and it became harder and harder 
to collect taxes. 

5. Only one measure helped fill up the gaps in population. Peaceful 

This was the introduction of barbarians from without. The i^^^^ion 

of bar- 
Roman army had long been mostly made up of Germans ; barians 

and (beside the captive colonies) conquered barbarians had 

been settled, hundreds of thousands at a time, in frontier prov- 



236 



LATER ROMAN EMIMKK 



inces, wliilc whole irifiidly tribes liad Ix'cii admitted peacefully 
into depopulated districts. But all this had a danger of its 
own. True the Germans so adnntted took on Roman civili- 
zation ; but they kept up some feeling for their kindred beyond 
the Rhine. The barrier between the dnlized world and its as- 
sailants was melting away. 




BoDT-QUARD OF Marctjs Auremus, made up of Germans- 
Aurolius' Triumplial Arch. 



From 



The Empire 
no longer 
able to 
resist 
outside 
barbarians 



In the third and fourth centuries there were no more great 
poets or men of letters. Learning and patriotism both declined. 
Society began to fall into rigid castes, — the serf bound to his 
spot of land, the artisan to his trade, the curial to his office. 
Freedom of movement was lost. To the last, the legions were 
strong in discipline and pride, and ready to meet any odds. 
But more and more there was dearth of money and dearth of 
men to fill the legion^s or to pay them. The Empire had become a 
shell. 

For five hundred years, outside l)arbarians had been tossing 
wildly about the great natural walls of the ei\ ilized world. 
Sometimes they had broken in for a moment, but always to be 
destroyed by some ^Llrius, Caesar, Aurelius, or .\urelian. 
In the fifth century they broke in to stay — but not until the 
Roman world had heeonn Christidn. 



For Further Readin-c. — Davis' I^railings, 
Additional: Pelham's Oj///i//e.s, 577-o.S(). 



II. Xos. 109-119. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
THE VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY 

The first Roman writer to make any definite mention of the Roman so- 
Christians is Tacitus, in 115 a.d. ; and it is plain that (hke all l^^\^^iy 
fashionable Roman society much later) he had heard only Christians 
misleading slander of them, for he refers to them merely as 
"haters of the human race" and practicers of a "pernicious 
superstition." But from the Book of Acts we know that at 
least fifty years earlier there were Christian congregations 
among the poor in nearly all the large cities of the eastern part 
of the Empire. The religion of mercy and gentleness and 
hope appealed first to the w^eak and downtrodden. 

For three centuries Roman society and government despised 
the sect of Christians, and often persecuted them ; but still the 
gentler spirit of the age, and its idea of human brotherhood, 
and especially the unity of the w^orld under one government 
and one culture, prepared the way for the victory of the church. 
If Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy had remained split up in hun- 
dreds of petty states with varying languages and customs, 
Paul and other early missionaries could not so readily have made 
their way from city to city, or have been able to speak to their 
audiences. 

Four causes help to explain the persecutions. 1. Rome tol- Causes of 
erated and supported all religions ; but, in return, she expected Persecution 
all inhabitants of the Empire to tolerate and support the re- 
ligion of the Empire, including the worship of the emperors. 
The Christians alone refused to do this, proclaiming that all 
worship but their own w^as sinful. 

2. Secret societies were feared and forbidden by the Empire, Secret 
on political grounds. Even the enlightened Trajan instructed ^°"®**®2 
Pliny to forbid the organization of a fircmciiis •company in a 

237 



238 



KISK OK CIIKISTIAXITY 



lar^^c city of his j)n)\iiicc, Ix'causc sucli associations were likely 
to l)cc«)iMc "factious asscmhlics." Hut the church of that day 
was a \ast. hiuhly or^Mui/cd, widely diffused, secret society. 

Pacifists ;j. In the third i)lace, the Christians kept apart from most 

public aniusenients, either because those amusements were 
immoral, like the " ^dadiatorial games," or because they were 
connected with festixals to heathen gods. This made Christians 
seem unsocial. Also, because* Christ had jjreached peace, 
many Christians refused to join the legions, or to fight, if drafted. 
This was near to treason, inasmuch as a i)rime duty of the 
Roman world was to repel l)arl)arism. Some of these extreme 
"pacifists" and "conscientious objectors" irritated their neigh- 
bors by e\('n refusing to illmninate their houses or garland 
their j)ortals in honor of national triumphs. 

lander 4. Clean li\(>s marked the early Christians, to a notal)le 

degr(>c. K\(M'y sin was punished before the whole congregation. 
The church was a \ ast association for mutual helpfulness in 
pure li\ing. Any member wlio was known to haxe worshiped 
pagan gods, or blaspliemed, or borne false witn(*ss, was dis- 
missed from Christian fellowsliip. Hut, strangely enough, 
fHKjan sociiiii hnrtr uofhuKj of this .side of the cdrli/ church. The 
Jews accused the Christians of all sorts of crimes, and, ])artic- 
ularly, of horrible orgies in the secret "love-feasts" (comnmnion 
su])])ers). If a cliild disappeared —lost or kidnapped by some 
slave-hunter — the rumor spread at once that it liad been eaten 
by the Christians in their jirivate feasts. Such accusations 
were accepted, carelessly, i)y Roman society, because the Chris- 
tian meetings were secret and Ix'cause there had really been 
licentious rites in some religions from the East that Rome had 
been forced to crush. 



Attitude of 'V\u' firsi century, e\cej)t for the horrors in Rome under 

the govern- \;,.,.,,^ alVorcJed no persecution until its xcrx close, and tlien 

ment toward \ r ^ • " • ; ; 

persecution only a slight one. Cnder 'I'rajan we see sj)asmodic local ])erse- 

cutions. not instigated b\- the govermnent. On the whole, 
during the second eenturx, the Christians were legall\- subject 
to ))unislnnenf ; but the law against them was rarely enforced. 



CONSTANTINE AND THEODOSIUS 



239 



Still it is well to remember that even then many noble men and 
women chose to die in torture rather than deny their faith. 
The third century was an age of anarchy and decay. The 
few able rulers strove strenuously to restore society to its an- 
cient order. One great obstacle to this restoration seemed 
to them to be this new religion, with its hostility to Roman 
patriotism. This century, accordingly, was an age of definitely 
planned persecution. But by this time Christianity was too 
strong, and had come to count nobles and rulers in its ranks. 




Triumphm, a 



OF CoNSTANTiNE AT RoME, 312 A.D., Commemorating 
the victory of Milvian Bridge. 



In 305, Diocletian abdicated the throne (in the midst of the 
most terrible of all persecutions of the Christians) ; and for 
eight years civil war raged between claimants for the imperial 
power, more than one of them bidding for the favor of the 
growing church. In 312 a.d. at the battle of the Milvian 
Bridge in north Italy the mastery of the world fell to Constan- 
tine the Great Constantine's father, while ruler in Britain 
and Gaul, had been distinctly favorable to the Christians, 
and on the eve of his decisive battle Constantine adopted the 



240 



THK VK^roKV OK (Ml H ISTI AXITY 



Licinius 
attempts 
to restore 
paganism 



Cross as a symhol upon his standards. (Sec Davis' Rradhujs 
for tlir story of his dream.) 

Tlu' Christians still were less than one tenth the population 
of the Empire; but they were ener^^etic and enthusiastic; 
they were massed in the great cities wliicli lield the keys to 
])oliti('al power; and they were a(hnii-al)ly organized for united 
action. 

It is not likely that Constantine ga\-e much thought to the 
trutii of Christian doctrine, and we know tliat he did not ])rac- 
tice CIn-istian \irtues. (He put to death cruelly his wife and a 
son, and had a rival assassinated.) But he was wise enough 
to recognize the good policy of allying this rising power to himself 
against his rivals. He may have seen, also, in a hroader and 
unselfish way, the folly of trying to restore the old pagan world, 
and have felt the need of establishing harmony between the 
government and this new power within the Empire, so as to 
utilize its strength instead of always combating it. So, in 313, 
a few months after Milvian Bridge, from his capital at Milan, 
Constantine issued the famous decree known as the Edict of 
Milan: "We grant to the Christians and to all others free 
choice to follow the mode of worship they nuiy wish, in order 
that whalsocirr diviniti/ and crlrstial power maii exist may be 
propitious to us and to all who live under our government." 

This edict established religions toleration,' nui\ })ut a.n end 
forever to pagan persecution of the Christians. At a later 
time Constantine showed many favors to the church, granting 
money for its buildings, and exempting the clergy from taxa- 
tion (as was done witli teachers in the schools). But, as head 
of the Roman state, he contimied to make ])ublic sacrifices 
to the pagan gods. 

.\fter ten years came a struggle l)etween Constantine and a 
rival, Licinius, for power. This was also the final conflict 
between Christianity and i)aganism. The followers of the 
old faiths rallied around Licinius, and the victory of Constantine 
was accepted as a verdict in favor of ( 'hristianity. 

In 392, Theodosius the Great, who liad already ruled for 
many years as emperor in the East, became sole emi)eror. He 



RISE OF HERESIES 



241 



made Christianity the only State religion, prohibiting all pagan ^ 
worship on pain of death. In out-of-the-way corners of the 
Empire, paganism Hved on for a century more ; but in the more 
settled districts zealous worshipers of Christ destroyed the 
old temples and some- 
times put to death the 
worshipers of the old gods 
and teachers of the old 
philosophical schools. 



Almost at once, too, the 
Christians began to use 
force to prevent differ- 
ences of opinion among 
themselves. When the 
leaders tried to state just 
what they believed about 
difficult points, some vio- 
lent disputes arose. Tn 
such cases the views of 
the majority finally pre- 
vailed as the orthodox doc- 
trine, and the views of the 
minority became heresy — 
to be crushed out in 
blood, if need were. 

Most of the early here- 
sies arose from different 
opinions about the exact 
nature of Christ. Thus, 



Persecu- 
tions by the 
Christians 











« 


m^Kl^Wi 


p 




Hi 






M 



Constantine's Triumphal Column at 
Constantinople — a beautiful piece of 
porphyry originally bearing the em- 
peror's statue in bronze on its summit 
(until 1 105 A.D.) . Constantine removed 
the capital of the Empire from Rome to 
Byzantium, which he rebuilt with great 
magnificence and renamed Constanti- 
nople ("Constantine's City "). One of 
"his motives, it is said, was to have a 
capital more easily Christianized than 
Rome with her old pagan glories. 



back in Constantine's time, Arius, 
a priest of Alexandria, taught that, while Christ was the divine 
Son of God, He was not equal to the Father. Athanasius, of 
the same city, asserted that Christ was not only divine and the 
Son of God, but that He and the Father were absolutely equal 



Early 
heresies 



The Nicene 
Creed 



1 Pagan is from a Latin word meaning rustic. In like manner, later, the 
Christianized Germans called the remaining adherents of the old worship 
heathens ("heath-dwellers"). 



242 



KAKLV ClIKISTIAXITY 



ill ;ill rcsiM'cts, "ol" x\\v same sul)stanc('" and '* co-ctcrnal." 
The struggle waxed fierce and dixided ( "lirislendoiu into oppos- 
ing camps. But Constantinc desired union in the church. (If 
it s|)lit into hostih' fragments, his political reasons for favoring 
it woidd l>e gone.) Accordingly, in 325, he summoned all 
the i)rincipal el(M-gy of the Empire to the first great council 
of the whole church, at Nicaea, in Asia Minor, and ordered 
them to come to agreement. Arius and Athanasius in person 
led the fierce debate. In the end the majority sided with 
Athanasius. His doctrine, summed up in the Niccne Creed, 
became the orthodox creed of Chri.stendom ; and Arius and 
his followers (unless they recanted) were put to death or driven 
to seek refuge with the barbarians — many of whom they con- 
verted to Arian Christianity. 

The victory of Christianity no doubt was in part a com- 
promise, like excry great change. Paganism reacted upon 
Cluistianity and ina(l(> the churcli in souk^ degree imperial 




Aisle 



Kave 



Aisle 



(Jkneual Plan ok a Basilica. 



and pagan. l^nt tliere was immenst* gain. The new reli- 
gion tnitigated slaxcry. built up a \ast and ixMieficent system 
of charity, abolished the gladiatorial games and the "exposure" 
of infants, and lessened the terribly conunon practice of suicide 
— branding that act as one of tlie worst of crimes; and it 
purified and strengthened th<' souls of hosts of common men 
and wo!nen. 

Tlie fourth century, ev(>n more than the tiiird, was a time 
of intellectual (leca\'. Tliere were no jxx'ts and no new science, 



PLATE XL 




Above. — Ruins of Constantine's Basilica. 

Below.— Interior of the Same " Restored." —The basilica (from a 
Greek word meaning the king's judgment hall) became the favorite 
Roman form for law courts just before the Empire came m\V hen 
the Christians came to power, they adopted this type of building tor 
their churches, and adapted many pagan structures for that purpose. 
Cf. Early Progress, p. 408. 



RISE OF HERESIES 



243 



while even the old were neglected. Pagan poetry, beautiful as DisUke 
it was, was filled with immoral stories of the old gods, and the and fear of 
Christians feared contamination from it (as the Puritans of the learning 
seventeenth century did from the plays of Shakespeare). The 
contempt for pagan science had less excuse. The spherical 
form of the earth was well known to the Greeks (p. 146), but the 
early Christians demolished the idea, asking, "If the earth be 
round, how can all men see Christ at his coming ? " The church 
was soon to become the mother and sole protector of a new 
learning, but it bears part of the blame for the loss of the old. 



Review Exercise 

1. Add to the list of dates 180, 284, 325. 

2. Extend list of terms for fact drill. 

3. Memorize a characterization of the periods of the Empire ; i.e. 

First and second centuries : peace, prosperity, good government. 
Third century : decline — material, political, intellectual. 
Fourth century : revival of imperial power ; victory of the Chris- 
tian church ; social and intellectual decline. 
Fifth and sixth (in advance) : barbarian conquest. 




Ro?,iAN Coins of the Empire. — Many have been found in th(> Orient. 



PART VI -ROMANO-TEUTONIC EUROPE 
400-1500 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

MERGING OF ROMAN AND TEUTON, 378 800 A.D. 

I. FOUR CENTURIES OF CONFUSION 

The savage East of tlic Uliiiu' tluTc had long roamed many "forest 
peoples," whom the Romans called Germans, or Teutons. These 
barbarians were tall, hut^^e of limb, white-skinned, flaxen-haired, 
with fierce blue eyes. To the short dark-skinned races of 
Roman Europe, they seemed tawny giants. The tribes nearest 
the Empire had taken on a little civilization, and had begun 
to form large combinations under the rule of kings. The more 
distant tribes were still savage and unorganized. In general, 
they were not far above the le\el of the better North American 
Indians in our colonial period. 

Government Tlic government of tlie Teutons is described for us by the 
Roman historian Tacitus. .\ tribe lived in villages scattered 
in forests. The rilhuic <uul the trihr each had its Assrmfdi/ and 
its hereditarx- eliief. The frihdl cliiif, or king, iras siirroiuidcd 
hi/ his cDUNril of viUtuji' chiefs. To (piote Tacitus : 

" Oil affairs of siiuiUer moment, tlie chiefs consult ; on those of greater 
importance, the whole community. . . . They assemi)le on stated 
(lays, either at the new or full moon. When they all think fit, they sit 
down armed. . . . Then the king, ov chief, and such others as are 
conspicuous for ajz:*'. l>irth, military renown, or eloquence, are heard, 
and gain attention rather from their ability to persuade than their 
autliority to command. If a proposal (lisplea.se, the assembly reject 
it by an inarticulate nuirnuir. If it prove agreeable, they clash their 
javelins; for the most honorable expression of assent among thera i.s 
tlie sound of arms." (Cf. early (In^ek organization.) 

241 



of village 
and tribe 



PLATE XLI 





AnovK. — RriNs of 'thk Palack of thk Caksars" on tlic P;il:itiiir Hill. 
I)uil( by Tilx^rius and Caligula. 

Below, — A " Rkstouation " of the Palaco of the Caesars, by Bonvonuti. 



FOUR CENTURIES OF CONFUSION 245 

The first Teutonic people to establish itself within the old Invasion 
Empire was the West Goths. These barbarians in 378 defeated ^^ ^^^ ^^^* 
and slew a Roman Emperor at Adrianople, almost under the 
walls of Constantinople, and then roamed and ravaged at 
will for a generation in the Balkan lantls. In 4IO, they entered 
Italy and sacked Rome (just 800 years after the sack by the 
Gauls), and then moved west into Spain, where they found 
the Vandals ^ another Teuton race who had entered Spain 
through Gaul from across the Rhine. Driving the Vandals 
into Africa, the West Goths set up in Spain the first firm Teu- 
tonic kingdom. 

Meanwhile, other Teutons had begun to swarm across the Other 
Rhine. Finally, after frightful destruction, the East Goths '[^^^^^^^ 
established themselves in Italy ; the Burgundians, in the valley 
of the Rhone ; the Angles and Saxons, in Britain ; the Franks, 
in northern Gaul. This "wandering of the peoples" filled the 
fifth century and part of the sixth. 

These two terrible centuries brought on the stage also another Slav Europe 
new race, — the Slavs ; and the opening of the following century ^ . ^~ 
brought Mohammedanism (pp. 253 ff .) . But of these three forces, 
we are concerned almost alone ivith the Teutons. Mohammedan- 
ism, as we shall see, seized swiftly upon all the old historic 
ground in Asia and Africa ; but these countries have had little 
touch since with our Western civilization. South of the Danube, 
Slavic tribes settled up almost to the walls of Constantinople, 
where the Roman Empire still maintained itself. Southeastern 
Europe became Slavic-Greek, just as Western Europe had be- 
come Teutonic-Roman. But, until very recently, Southeastern 
Europe has had little bearing upon the Western world. The 
two halves of Europe fell apart, with the Adriatic for the dividing 
line, — along the old cleavage between Latin and Greek civili- 
zations. In all the centuries since, human progress has come 
almost wholly from the Western Romano-Teutonic Europe — 
and from its recent offshoots. 

The invasions brought overwhelming destruction upon this 



24(1 



WKSTKKX lailiOPIO, 4(K)-S()0 A.D. 



The inva- 
sions over- 
throw the 
old civil- 
ization 



The Dark 
Ages." 
400 800 



Survivals of 
Roman 
civiUzation 
in towns 
and in the 
church 



Wc'storii world, — tlic most (•()iii])l('t(> catastroplic tliat ov(T 
Ix't'cll a urcat cixilizi'd society. ( 'i\ ilizatioii, it is true, liad hccii 
<l(H'liiiiiiu, Ix't'orr tlicv Ix'^^aii ; l>ut llicy t iciiiriidoiisly accelerated 
the iiu)\ (Miieiit, and j)re\<'nte(l any rc\i\al of the old cnlture 
in the West. 

And when the in\aders liad entered into possession, and 
.so ceased to destroy, two new causes of decline appeared : 
(1) Thr new ruling claJis<\s were densely ignorant. They cared 
nothing for the survivals of literature and science. Few of them 
could read, or write even their names. Much of the old civili- 
zation was allowed to decay because they could not under- 
stand its use. (2) The language of everyday speech was grow- 
ing away from the literary language in which all the remains of 
the old knowledge were preserved. Tlie language of learning 
})ecame "dead." It was known only to the clergy, and to 
most of them at this period \ery imperfectly. 

The fifth and sixth centuries brought the Teuton into the 
Roman world; the seventh and eighth centuries fused Roman 
and Teuton elements into a new "Western Europe." For 
the whole four hundred years of these "Dark Ages" (400-SOO), 
Europe remained a dreary scene of violence, lawlessness, and 
ignorance. The old Ronuni schools disappeared, and classical 
literatiu'c seemed to be extinct. There was no tran(|uil leisure, 
and therefore no study. There was little security, and there- 
fore little work. The l^^'anks and Cioths were learning tlie rudi- 
ments of civilized life; but the Latins were losing all but the 
rudiments — and they seemed to lose faster tlian the Teutons 
gained. 

liut after all, the invasions did not uproot civilization. The 
con(|uests were made by small nund)ers. and. outside Britain. 
tliey did not greatly cliange the cliaracter of the j)o])ulation. 
The concpierors settled among ten or fifty times their own 
mnnbers. At first they were the rulers, and almost the only 
large land-owners. But fhf towns, so far as they sur\i\('d, re- 
nidified Roman, and, almost unnoticed by the ruling classes, 
they ])reserved some parts of the old culture and handicrafts. 
Till old jiojuddfion, too, for a long tlmr fiirni.shrd tdl the clergy. 



PLA'lE XLU 




^„^ r^ 9'^(W When the Vandals from 
Tomb of Hadrian (locate on map p^ 230) . ^^^^^n ^^^ ^, ^ 

death upon him : 

"Soul of mme, pretty one, flitting one. 
Guest and partner of my clay, 
Whither wilt thou hie away, 
Pallid one. ri«id one, naked one. — 
Never to play again, never to play f 



THE JUSTINIAN CODE 



247 



From this class — the sole possessors of the art of writing and 
keeping records — the Teutonic lords had to draw secretaries 
and confidential officers ; and by these advisers they were grad- 
ually persuaded to adopt many customs of the old civilization. 
Most important of all, the church itself lived on much in the 
old way. Necessarily it suffered somewhat in the general deg- 
radation of the age ; but, on the whole, it protected the weak, 
and stood for peace, industry, and right living. In the darkest 




A Roman Tkmple as It 



'rHNU'KS 'I'li-DAY 111 Xill 

(M'aisonCarree). 



]• ranee 



of those dark centuries there were great numbers of priests and 
monks inspired with zeal for righteousness and love for men. 

The preservation of Roman law we owe mainly to a source The 
outside Western Europe. The Roman Empire lived on in part Ej^7re^" 
of Eastern Europe and in Asia, with its capital at Constantinople. 
Cut off from Latin Europe, that Empire now grew more and 
more Greek and Oriental, and after 500 a.d. we usually speak of 
it as "the Greek Empire." 

In the sixth century, after long decline, the Empire fell for The 
a time to a capable ruler, Justinian the Great (527-565), whose Jode^^*" 
most famous work was a codifieaiion of the Rowan law. In 



24S 



WKSTKIv'X KlMiOPK, 4()0-S00 AD. 



the coni'sc of (•(•iitiii'ics, tlint l;i\v had hoconic an iiitolcrahle 
maze. Now a coinmissioii (»t alilc lawvcrs j)Ut tlic wliolc mass 
into a new foi'iii, iiiaiAclously (•oiii|)acl, clear, and orderly, 
-lustiniaii also reeon(|iiered Italy for the Kmpii-e, and so tlie code 
was (>stal)lislied in that land. Thence, thron^h the church, 
and some centuries later through a new class ot" lawyers, it 
spread over the West. 

-[ustinian's coiKjuest of Italy had another result less hapi)y. 
1 1 is ^-enerals destroyed a proniisin<; kingdom of the East Goths 
in Italy. Then (odS), immediately- after the great emperor's 

death, a new German j)eople, the 
saccKjc Lombards, swarmed into the 
peninsida. Their chief kingdom 
was in the Po valley, which we 
still call Lomhardy ; hut \ arious 
Lombard "dukedoms" were scat- 
tered also in other parts. The 
Empire kept (1) the "Exarchate 
of Ravenna" on the Adriatic; (2) Rome, with a little territory 
about it; and i'X) the extreme .south. Thus Ifali/, the middle 
hmd for irhicli Romdn luid Teuton had stnufqled, was at last 
dirided heticeen them and shattered into Jnufments in the })rocess. 




A SiLVKR Coin of Justinian. 



When the barl)arians came into th<' Km])ire, t lieii' law was onl\' 
unwritten custom. Much of it remained so, especially in 
Britain. But, under Roman iiifhu-nce, the con(iuerors soon 
put parts of their law into written codes. Two common features 
of these codes throw interesting sidelights on the times. 

1. Offenses irere atoned for h}/ monei/-j)a}/nu'nts, \arying from 
a small amount for cutting off the joint of a finger, to the wergeld 
(man-money), or payment for taking a man 's life. 

2. WIk'U a man wished to ])ro\'e himself imiocent, or another 
man guilty, he did not try to i)ring e\ idence, as we <lo. l^roof 
con.sisted in an appeal to God to shoir the riijht. 

Thus in the tri(d hi/ com pit.rfiation, the accuser and accused 
swore solemnly to their statements, and each \\a^ backc<l by 
** comj)m'gatois," — not witnesses, but persons who swore they 




After 60T the Kln^dam ol the Weat Go»h«((l 




was limi'ted.to « 6*"°^^ t>^\ iit,hBr .Ti nfr,ij> CSeptkuania} 



TEUTONIC CODES OF LAW 



249 



believed their man was telling the truth. To swear falsely 
was to invite the divine vengeance, as in the boyish survival, — 
" Cross my heart and hope 
to die." 

In trial by ordeal, the 
accused tried to clear him- 
self by being thrown bound 
into water. Or he plunged 
his arm into boiling water, 
or carried red-hot iron a 
certain distance ; and if his 
flesh was uninjured, when 
examined some days later, 
he was declared innocent. 
All these ordeals were un- 
der the charge of the 
clergy and were preceded 
by sacred exercises. Such 
tests could be made, 
too, by deputy : hence 




Trial by 
ordeal 



Trial by Combat — the religious prelimi- 
nary. Each champion is making oath 
of the justice of his cause- f'rom a fif- 
teenth-century manuscript. 



our 







Trial by Combat — ^companion piece to 
the preceding cut- 



phrase to "go through fire 
and water" for a friend. 

Among the fighting class, 
the favorite trial came to 
be the trial by combat, — a 
judicial duel in which God 
was expected to " show the 
right." 

The Teutons introduced 
once more a system of 
growimj law. Codification 
preserved the Roman law, 
but crystallized it. Teu- 
tonic law, despite its codes, 
remained for a long time 
crude and unsystematic ; 
but it contained possibili- 
ties of further growth . The 



Growing 
law 



250 



WKSTKRN EUROPM, KM) SOO AD. 



iinportaiu'c of this fact lias been felt mainly in the p]nglish 
"Connnon Law," the basis of our Ameriean le^al system. 

The eonquest modified the politieal institutions of the eon- 
querors in many ways. Three ehan^es call for attention. 

1. The Tiutonic Icings hicfDiic more (ihsoluff. At first they 
were little more than especially lionored military chiefs, at the 
hcjid of rude democracies. In the conciuests, they secured 
lar<;e sliares of confiscated land, so that they could reward their 
supporters and l)uil(l up a strong jx'rsonal following". Mon^- 



m.,^^<^e^?^>^>^^:-'^t^^'^^ 







I ^kJ. ''*-J^\,J=>~ . ^aio^gfi 



iSEVKNTH ('KNTinY Vii.LA (ill \v()()(l) IN NouthG.ml, US " rostofcd " by Par- 
mcntior. Tho palisacios inclose, it will he ii()ti<'Ocl, not only the dwellinR.s 
ft)r tho human inhabitants (with a lofty watch fowc^ri, but .iIsm vcui'tablc 
pardons and extensive barns for rattle. 



ov(>r, the Uoniau idea of al)solute |)ow('r in tlie head of the state 
had its infiuence. (Witli all its excellences, the Roman law was 
imbued with the i)riu(iple of desj)()tism. A faxoritc maxim 
was. — " What the prince wills has the force of law .") 

2. .1 ncir nohllif}/ of .srrrirr (ipprand. The kiuLT rewarded his 
most trusted follower's with grants of lands, and mad(> them 
rulers (counts and dukc^s) over large districts. 

3. The as.scnihlir.s of j'nriiun (Iccrcascd in iuiportancc. They 



EVERYDAY LIFE 251 

survived in England as occasional "Folkmoots," and in the 
Prankish kingdom as "Mayfields" ; but they shrank into gath- 
erings of nobles and officials. 

Everyday life in the seventh century ivas harsh and mean. Life in 
The Teutonic conquerors disliked the close streets of a Roman ^®^*®g^ 
town ; but the ^'illa, the residence of a Roman country gentle- 700 A.D. 
man, was the Roman institution which they could most nearly 
appreciate. The new Teutonic kings (and their nobles also) 
lived not in town palaces, but in rude but spacious w^ooden 
dwellings on extensive farmsteads in the midst of forests. 

Population had shrunken terribly, even since the worst times Population 
of the Roman Empire. In the north, most towns had been shrunken 
destroyed. Those that were rebuilt (on a small scale), sur- 
rounded by rude palisades, were valued chiefly for refuge, and 
for convenient nearness to a church or cathedral. (In the south, 
it is true, the old cities lived on, with a considerable degree of 
the old Roman city life.) 

Everywhere, the great majority of the people were the Life of the 
poor folk who tilled the land for neighboring masters. Most P°°^ 
of these toilers lived in mud hovels, or in cabins of rough 
boards, without floors and with roofs covered with reeds or 
straw. At the best, little more of their produce remained 
to them than barely enough to support life; they were con- 
stantly subject to the arbitrary will of rough masters ; and at 
frequent intervals they suffered terribly from pestilence and 
famine. 

In the old East, holiness was believed to be related to w^ith- Monasti- 
drawal from the world and to disregard for pleasure and for 
natural instincts, even love for mother, wife, and child. This . 
unnatural tendenc}^ invaded Eastern Christianity, and, in the 
Egyptian and Syrian deserts, there arose a class of tens of thou- 
sands of Christian hermits, who strove each to save his own soul 
by tormenting his body. 

In some cases these fugitives from society united into small 
societies with common rules of life ; and in the latter part of 
the fourth century the idea of religious communities was trans- 



252 



WESTKRN KUROPK, 4(KVS(K) A.l). 



])l;uit(Ml to tlic \V(»st, wluTo the loii^' juuircliy following' tin- iii- 

\ Msioiis iiiJidt' siicli a life pccnliiirly iii\ itin^-. 

KuropcMii moiiMst icisiii, liowcxcr, dilVcrcil widely from its 

inodi'l ill the East. The monks 
of the West, within their quiet 
walls, wisely sought escape 
from temptation, not in idle- 
ness, but in actixc and in- 
cessant work. Their motto 
was, "To work is to pray." 
In the scvcttth ccuiurii, the ma- 
jority of cultured mid rrfinrd 
men and women in Western 
Europe lived within monastic 
walls. Monks did not go out 
into the world to save it ; hut 
their doors were open to all 
who came for help. For cen- 
turies of \iolence and brutal- 
ity, the thousands of monas- 
teries that dotted Western Flu- 
rope were tlic only ahnhoiises, 
inns, asylums, h()sj)itals, and 
of learning. 




The Aubky of C'itkaux. — From a 
miniature in a twelfth century 
manuscript. {Ahhci/ i.s the name 
for a hirtic monastery.) Note the 
grain fields in the background, which 
were largely cultivated l)y the 
monies them.'selves. 



•honh 



1 tlie sole refui^e 



Rise of 
the Franks 



II. F1{ANKS, MOH A.MMEDAXS, AND POPES 

During the two centuries of fusion (p. 24()\ two organizing 
powers grew uj) in Europe the Frdnhish .v/a/r and ///' PdjKwy; 
and one great danger apj)eared — Mohammrdauism. 

The growth of the Frankish stat(» was due mainl\ to (Ions, 
a ferocious and treacherous Teutonic sa\age of shrewd intellect. 
In /fSI , Clovis became king of one of the se\ cral little tribes of 
Franks on the lower Rhine. Fifty years later, thanks to a long- 
eontimied |)<)lic\ of war, assassination, and jx-rfidy, In's sons 
ruled an em])ire comi)rising nearly all mo<lern P'rance, tlie Neth- 
erlands, and much of western Germany. 

77//.V //'//• Franhish t iiij/irr ninniuai for three ei ntnrns not 



CLOVIS AND THE FRANKS 253 

only the greatest power in Western Europe hut practically the only The " Do- 
power. The Gothic state in Spain was in decay. Italy was in ^jj^"^ 
fragments. England (Britain) remained a medley of small 
warring states (p. 268). Germany, east of the Prankish empire, 
held only savage and unorganized tribes. For two of these 
centuries the family of Clovis kept the throne, — a story of 
greed, treachery, and murder, and, toward the end, of dismal, 
swinish indolence. The last of these kings were mere phantom 
rulers, known as "Do-nothings," and all real power was held 
by a mayor of the palace. The empire of the Franks seemed 
about to dissolve in anarchy. Especially did German Bavaria The 
and Roman Aquitaine attempt complete independence under Prankish 
native dukes. But about the year 700 a great mayor, Charles, united by 
known as Martel ("the Hammer"), by crushing blows right ^^^tel 
and left began to restore union and order. 

And none too soon. For the Mohammedans now attacked 
Europe. Except for Martel's long pounding, there would 
have been no Christian power able to withstand their onset — 
and Englishmen and Americans to-day might be readers of 
the Mohammedan Koran instead of the Christian Bible. 

A century after Clovis built up the empire of the Franks, a Arabia 

better man, out of less promising material, built a might \- J5^°^® 

^.. . Mohammed 

power m Arabia. Until that time, Arabia had had little to do 

with human progress. It was mainh^ desert, with strips of 
tillable land near the Red Sea, — where also there were a few 
small cities. Elsewhere the Arabs were wandering shepherds, — 
poor and ignorant, dwelling in black camel's hair tents, li\ing 
from their sheep and by robbing their neighbors, and worshiping 
sticks and stones. The inspiring force that was to lift them to 
a higher life, and fuse them into a world-conquering nation, 
was the fiery enthusiasm of Mohammed. 

Mohamnu^d was born at Mecca about 570. He ncner learned Moham- 
to read; but his speech was forceful, and liis manner pleasing ^^\ 
and stately. He was given to occasional periods of religious 
ecstasy, praying alone in the desert for days at a time (as in- 
deed many Arabs did) ; and in such a lonely vigil, when he was 



254 WKSTERN KUROPK. 4(K) S(M) AD. 

a iTspcctcMl nuTcliaiit forty years old, (iod Mppcart'd to Iiiin 

(he said) in a wondrous \ ision, irvraliii^^ to liim a lii^duT religion. 

Moral Tiu" Koran (soo extracts in Ogg's Source Book), the "sacred 

teachings of i^^)}^" inade up of his teachings, taught a higher morahtv than 

Mohammed , , , , i p • . -i t • i 

the Arabs had known (much of it similar to Jewish teachings, 

with which he had become acquainted in his travels as a mer- 
chant) ; but it accepted also certain evil customs of the time, 
such as slavery and polygamy. 
The For twelve years the new faith grew slowly. A few friends 

62?A^D accepted ^lohammed at once as a prophet ; but the bulk of 
his fellow townsfolk jeered at the claim, and when he con- 
tinued to order them to put away their stone idols, they drove 
liim from Mecca. Tliis flight is "the Hegira" {623 a.d.). 
Mohammed H'lt Mohammed con\erted the tribes of the desert, and then 

makes con- took up the sword. His fierce warriors ])ro\'ed themselves 
verts by the ... . . . , , 

sword aunost irresistible, conciuering many a time against overwhelm- 

ing odds. They felt sure that to every man there was an ap- 
pointed time of death, which lie could ueitluu- delay nor hasten, 
and they rejoiced in deatli in battle as the surest admission to 
the joys of Paradise. 
Rapid Before his death, ten years after the Hegira, IMohammed 

thelluh^ was master of all Arabia. Eighty years later, his followers 
stood \ictorious upon the Oxus, the Indus, the Hlaek Sea, the 
Atlantic, — rulers of a realm \unrv extensi\-e tliaii that of Home 
at its height. Within the span of one human life, the ]\Ioham- 
medans had won all the old Asiatic enii)ire of Alexander the 
Great, and all Nortli Africa besides; and drawing togetluT the 
sweeping horns of their nn'ght\ crescent, they were already 
trying to enter K»n-o])e from both east and west across the 
narrow straits of tiie 1 bllespont and (Gibraltar. 
The Tli«' most foiinidaitle attacks wore tliemsel\-es away (iu'2 antl 

Saracens -\-^ .,|„„,, ,)„. ^^.,i|^ ,,f j|„. ci^^. ,,j- ( 'onstantine ; but in 711 
attack f 1 • 

Europe the Aral)s did enter Spain and were soon masters of that jx'nm- 

sula, exce])t for remote mountain fastnesses. Then, pouring 
across the P\renees, the Mohammedan flood sj)rea(l over Gaul 
to the Loire. Now. indeed, it "seemed that the crescent was 
about to round to tlie full." 



PLATE XLllI 





Above. — The Damascus Gate in the Walls of Jerusalem To-day — as 
rebuilt by the Saracens after their conquest in the seventh century. 

Below. — A View of Jerusalem To-day from Mt. Scopus where Titus 
encamped when he besieged the city (p. 215). The Saracenic walls, of 
which one gate is shown above, can be clearly seen. After the Arab con- 
quest the city remained in Mohammedan hands, except for about one 
hundred years during the Crusades (pp. 294-297), until the closing days 
of the World War. 



THE MOHAMMEDAN PERIL 255 

But the danger completed the reunion of the Frankish date. Battle of 
The duke of Aquitaine, long in revolt against Frankish rule, „°"^fVk 
fled to the camp of Charles Martel for aid against the Moham- 
medan; and, in 732, in the plains near Tours, the "Hammer 
of the Franks" with his close array of mailed infantry met 
the Arab host. From dawn to dark, on a Saturday in October, 
the gallant, turbaned horsemen of the Saracens hurled them- 
selves in vain against the Franks' stern wall of iron. At night 
the surviving Arabs stole silently from their camp and fled 
back behind the shelter of the P^Tcnees. 

This Battle of Tours, just one hundred 3^ears after Moham- 
med's death, is the high-water mark of the Saracen invasion. 
A few years later, the Mohammedan world, like Christendom, 
split into rival empires, and the critical danger to Western civili- 
zation for the time passed away. 

The Frankish state had saved Europe from Africa. Next Claims of 

it allied to itself the papacy. We must now trace the rise of *^® Roman 
^ ^ '^ papacy to 

that power. headship 

As the first Christian missionaries spread out beyond Judea 
and came to a new province, they naturally went first to the 
chief city there. Thus the capital of the province became the 
seat of the first church in the district. From this mother so- 
ciety, churches spread to the other cities of the province, and 
from each city there sprouted outlying parishes. 

At the head of each parish was a priest (assisted usually by 
deacons and subdeacons to care for the poor). The head of a 
city church was a bishop (overseer), with supervision over the 
rural churches of the neighborhood. The bishop of the mother 
church in the capital city exercised great authority over the other 
bishops of the province. He became known as archbishop 
or metropolitan ; and it became customary for him to summon the 
other bishops to a central council. 

The more powerful of these archbishops (known as patriarchs) 
gradually won authority over others ; and by the fourth cen- 
tury afl the East was divided among the four patriarchates 
of Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Constantinople, while 



2r)() 



WKSTKRX KURDPK. 100 SOO AD. 



all tlu' Wt'st caiiie uiuk'r the authority of the bishop of Rome. 

Very early the last of these had put forth a vigorous claim — 
as spiritual successor to St. Peter, alleged founder of tlie 
church at Koine — to supremacy over all the Christian churcli. 
Rome had advantages that helped to make good this claim. 
(1) Men thought of Rome as the world-capital. (2) The Latin 
half of the Empire had no other church founded by an Apostle ; 
nor did it contain any other great city : Rome's rivals were all 
east of the Adriatic. i'A) The decline of the Roman Empire 
in the West, after the barbarian inxasions, left the j)()pe ^ less 
lial)le to interference from the imperial gox-ernment than the 
Eastern bishops were. (4) A long line of remarkal)le popes, by 
their wise statesmanship and their missionary zeal, confirmed 
the position of Rome as head of the Western churches. 

E\'en in the West, however, until about 700 A.D., most men 
looked uj)()n the l)ish()p of Rome only as one among five great 
patriarchs, though the most loved and trusted one. l^ut in the 
eighth centurx- Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch fell to the 
Saracens; and, soon afterward, rcmainnKj (liristi ndoni split 
info riral LiifiH and (Jrrcl: chnrchrs, grouped respect i\'ely around 
Uonu' and ( 'onstantinople. 

77/ /.v '' (iridf Srhisin'' folloircd flic (tncirnt linr.s of partition 
hcfnutfi the Latin and (inrk cultiirrs; but the occasion for actual 
separation was a (lis])ute over the use of images (the "icono- 
clast," or image-l)r('aking, (|uestion). An infhiential party in 
the Greek Empire desired to abolish the use of images, which, 
they felt, the ignorant were apt to degrade froin symbols into 
idols. .\ great reforming cmjx'ror, Ijo t/ir [sanrian, })ut him- 
self at the head of the movement, and ordered all images re- 
moved from thr clun-ches. The West belie\-ed in their use as 
aids to worshij) ; and tlie ])ope forbade olxMlicnce to the order 
of the emperor. The result was the sej)aration of Christendom 
into two hah'es, ne\ cr since united. 

This left Rome tlie unquestioned head of the Latin church, 
the sj)iritual lord of Western l\uroj)e. .\t the same time, too, 

' The name jtopc ("pupa") was at first <)iil\- a term of atTcffiuiiatp respect 
("father"). It did not l)eeome an official t^'rni until lOs'j. 



POPES AND FRANKS 



257 



the pope was growing into a temporal ^ sovereign over a small state The pope 
in Italy. In the break-up of that peninsula (p. 248), the imperial a^tem^^^ 1 
governor kept his capital at Ravenna, safe amid the marshes prince 
of the Adriatic coast. Thus he was soon cut off, by Lombard 
states, from Rome, which with neighboring territory still be- 
longed to the Empire. Bishops always held considerable 
civil authority. This new condition left the bishop of Rome 




Cloisters of St. John Lateran. This church stands on the site of the 
first papal church. It adjoins the Lateran palace, the official residence 
of the popes until 1377. 

the only lieutenant of the Empire in his isolated district; and 
the difficulty of communication with Constantinople (and the 
weakness of the emperors) made him in practice an independent 
ruler. After the split between Greek and Latin churches, 
this independence was openly avowed. 



At once, however, the new papal state was threatened with Popes and 
conquest by the neighboring Lombards, who already had seized om ar s 

1 Temporal, in this sense, is used to apply to matters of this world, in 
contrast to the spiritual matters of the world eternal. 



258 



WKSTKKX KUHOI'K, 100 SOO A.I) 



tlu> Kxarcliatc ot" Kaxcniiii. Tlic pojx-s jipjx'alcd to I lie Fniiiks 
for aid a^^aiiist Loinl)ar(l attack. The Fraiikisli mayors needed 
papal sanction for their own plans jnst then ; and so the two or- 
(jdtiiziufi forces of W'cstrni Karopr joined hand.s. 

Tlie Frankish mayor now was Pip])in the Short, son of Charles 
Martel. This ruler felt that he bore the burdens of kingship, 
and he wished to take to himself also its name and dignity. 
Such a stej) needed powerful sanction. So, in 7')(), Pippin sent 
an embassy to the pope to ask whether this was "a good state 
of things in regard to the kings of the Franks." The pope 
replied, "It seems better that he who has the ])ower should 
b(^ king rather then he who is falsely called so." Thereupon 
Pippin shut up the last shadow-king of tlie house of Clovis 
in a monastery, and himself assumed the crown. 

A little later, Pope Stephen visited the Frankish court and 
solemnly consecrated Pippin king. All earlier Teutonic kings 
had held their kingship by will of their people ; but Stephen 
anointed Pippin, as the old Hebrew prophets did the Hebrew 
kings. This began for European monarchs their "sacred" 
character as "the Lord's anointed." On his ])art. Pippin 
made Loml)ar(ly a tributary state and gave to the pope that 
territory which the Lombju'd king had recently seizenl from 
Ravenna. Tin's "Donation of Pij)])in" creiited \\\c modern 
princij)ality of "the Papal States" — to last until ISTO. 



1m)|{ I'^nrriiKU I^kadinc. — Tlie ('l(»>in^!; nuiiilx-rs of Davi--' Rcaih'tujs, 
H, contain excellent source material on this period. See, too, (^jig's 
Sourer lionk, especially for Mohatninedaiiisni. If time is found for 
other library worU, the following hooks are among the most useful : 
Emcrlon's I nlrndiielion. fo the Middte A(/es, dis. i-vii ; Hod^kin's 
Tlu(><toric tli( (jolli; Muir's Mohannned ; iSargcant's TIte Frunl^s. 



CHAPTER XXIX 



CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE 



"A patch of light in the vast gloom. " 

• Pippin, King of the Franks, died in 768, and was succeeded 
by his son Karl the Great, known in his own day as Carolus 
Magnus, and best known to us by the French form Charlemagne. 

Charlemagne was a statesman rather than a fighter; but 
he found his realm still threatened by barbarian Germans on 
the east and by IVJohammedan Moors on 
the south, and his long reign of a half 
century was tilled with ceaseless border 
wars. He thrust back the Saracens to 
the Ebro, redeeming a strip of Spain ; 
and, in a long pounding of thirty years, 
he subdued the heathen Saxons amid the 
marshes and trackless wilderness between 
the lower Rhine and the Elbe. All this 
district, so long a peril to the civilised 
world, w^as colonized by Prankish pioneers 
and planted with Christian churches. In 
such bloody and violent ways Charlemagne 
laid the foundation for modern Germany. 

Other foes engaged energy the great king 
would rather have given to reconstruc- 
tion. The vassal Lombard king attacked 
the pope. After fruitless expostulation, Charlemagne marched 
into Italy, confirmed Pippin's "Donation," and at Pavia 
placed the Iron Crown of Lombardy upon his own head, as 
King of Italy. And when restless Bavaria once more rebelled, 
that district was at last thoroughly subdued. 

Thus Visigoth in northern Spain, Burgund in 

2.'50 




Charle- 
magne, 
768-814 

Repulse of 
barbarian 
danger : 
civilization 
expanded 



Seal of Charlemagne. 
(This is the nearest 
approach we have to 
a likeness of Charle- 
magne. The so-called 
"pictnres" of Charle- 
magne in many books 
are purely imagina- 
tive, by artists of later 
centuries.) 



south Gaul, 



L>(i() 



Till-: KMIMKK OK ( 'I l.\ KM.KM ACJNE 



Buffer ■ 
states on 
the east 



' Emperor 
of the 
Romans, " 
800 AD. 



L(unl)ar(l in Italy, and the more newly " cixilized " Bavarian 
and Saxon in Germany, along witii the dominant Franks — 
(ill I III siirririiiii Trufiniir peoples except the Norsemen in the 
S('andina\ian lands and the An<!:les and Saxons in Ikitain - 
irrrr fu.suil in one Cliri.sfian Homano-Trutoiiic Miiic. lieyond 
this "Western Knrope," to the east, stretclied away savage 
and heathen Avars and Slavs, still hurling themselves from 
time to time against the barriers of tlie civilized world. Charle- 
magne made no attempt to rmJunly tliese inharmonious elements 
in Ins realm ; })ut, toward the close, he did reduce the first line 
of peoples beyond the Elbe and the Danube into trihiifari/ .stafis 
to serve as buffers against their untamed brethren farther east. 

But no mere "King of the Franks" could liold in lasting alle- 
giance the minds of Visigotli, Loml)ard, Bavarian, and Saxon, 
and of tlie old Ronum j)opulations among wliom they dwelt. 
And so Chdrlnmiqur now slrnuithcurd his authon'fi/ over his 
em])ire by rcviriufi in thr West ihc diqnitii and magic name of the 
Roman Kmpirr, ruling at once from tlie old world-capital, Rome 
on the Latin Tiber, and from Ids new capital, the German 
Aachen near tlie Rhine. 

There was ah'eady a "Roman Emjx'ror" at ('(distant inoj)!*', 
whose authority, /// ihrory, extended over all Christendom; 
])ut just at this time, Irene, the empress-mother, i)ut out the 
eyes of her son, Constantine VI, and seized the imj)erial power. 
To most minds. East an<l West, it seemed monstrous that a 
\vick<'d woman should pretend to the scepter of the world ; and, 
on ("lu'istmas Day, SOO a.d., as Charlemagne at Rome knelt in 
prayer at the altar, Po])e Leo III ])laced upon his head a gold 
crown, sahiting him "Charles Augustus, Eniperor of the Ro- 
mans." This i\iHH\ was at once ratified l)y tlie enthusiastic 
acclaim of the multitude without. 



The two In theory, Rome liad cliosen a successor to Constantine \L 

Empires j,,^^ deposed at Constantinople. In actual fact, however, 

tin drid of Leo and Chnrlrmai/nr diridid thr Christian world into 

two rival rmpirr.s, each calling itself fhr Roman I^npire. After a 



time mm 



had t 



o recogmz 



'.e this fact, — as tliey liad to recognize 




EUROPE 

IN THE TIME OF 

CHARLES THE GREAT 
814 

ROMAN EMPIRE OF THE WE8T ROMAN EMPIRE OF THE EAST 



FxankUh SUte befort* Charlemagrne 
Charlemaipie'i Additioas 
Tributary 8t*te« 

SCALE OF MILES 

/ (P5oT5o 280 35o i3o 65o 



■ 



MOHAMMEDANS: 
EiuiraU- of Cordova 



Caliphate of Bat^dad 




Lon^tade 5 West 



10 Longitude 15 Eaat 




Torn 25 Greenwich 




CIVILIZATION REORGANIZED 261 

that there were two branches of the Christian church; but 
to the men of the West, their Empire, Uke their church, remained 
the only legitimate one. In plain fact, 7ieither Empire was 
really Roman. The Eastern grew more and more Oriental, and 
the Western more Teutonic. 

The glory and prosperity of the old Empire had not been Poverty 
restored with its name. To accomplish that was to be the work ^^\^^^^l^ 
of centuries more. In 800, the West was still ignorant and 800 A.D. 
wretched. Roads had fallen to ruin, and murderous brigands 
infested those that re- 
mained. Money was 
little known, and 
trade hardly existed. 
Almost the only in- 
dustry was the primi- 
tive agriculture of the 
serfs. Even Charle- Silver Coin of Charlemagne. The obverse 
side shows the Latin form of his name. Note 
magne could raise no ^^e rudeness of the engraving compared with 
"taxes " He exacted that of Justinian's coin on p. 248, or older 
,, . * . ' „ . coins, pp. 162, 177, 243, etc 

service m person in 

war and peace ; and the other support of his court came mainly 
from the produce of the royal farms scattered through the 
kingdom. Partly to make sure of this revenue in the cheapest 
way, and more to attend to the wants of his vast realms, 
Charlemagne and his court were always on the move. No 
commercial traveler of to-day travels more faithfully, or dreams 
of encountering such hardship on the road. 

To keep in closer touch with popular feeling in all parts of The " May- 
the kingdom, Charlemagne made use of the old Teutonic assem- fj^^'^pj.^jj'^ 
blies in fall and spring. All freemen could attend. Sometimes, 
especially when war was to be decided upon, tliis "Mayfield" 
gathering comprised the bulk of the Frankish nation. At other 
times it was made up only of noV)les and churclnnen. To these 
assemblies were read the capitularies, or collections of laws, 
decreed by the king. (LawmaJcing was in the hands of the king. 
At the most, the assemblies could only bring to bear upon him 
mildly the force of public opinion.) 



262 



TlIK KJMIMKK OF CIIAKLEMAGNE 



CharltMiia^nc made l)ra\(' attempts also to re\ivc' learning. 
He iie\(>r learned to write, l)Ut lie spoke and read Latin, and 
he understood some Greek. For his age he was an edueated 
man ; and he wished earnestly to make more learning possible 
for others. Nearly every noble, and many of the elergy, were 
densely ignorant. The only tools to work with were poor. 
There seemed no place to begin. Still much was done. For 
teachers Charlemagne sought out learned men in South Italy, 
where Roman civilization best survived, and he opened schools 
in monasteries and at bishops' seats for the instruction of all 
children who could come to them — even the children of serfs. 
Some of these schools, as at Tours and Orleans, lived on through 
the ]\Ii(l(lle Ages.^ 

In the early i)art of the eighth century there were four great 
forces contending for Western F^noix', — the Greek Empire, 
the Saracens, the Franks, and the papacy. Hy the year SOO, 
Charles iVIartel and Charles the Great had excluded the first 
two and had fused the other two into the revived Roman Empire. 
For centuries more, this Roman Empire was to be one of the 
most important forces in P^ur<)p(\ Barbarism and anarchy 
were again to break in, after tlie deatli of the great Charles; 
but the imperial idea, to wliieh he had gixcn new life, was to 
be for ages the inspiration of the best minds as they strove 
against anarchy in behalf of order and ])rogress. 

Cliarleniagne himself towers al)o\'e all other men from the fifth 
century to the fifteenth — easily the greatest figure of a thou- 
sand > cars. He stands for fi\'e mighty mo\'ements. He widened 
til*' area of ei\ilizati()n, created one great Romano-Teutonic 
state, re\i\('d the Roman Empire in the West for the out- 
ward form of this stat<\ reorganized church and societ\'. and 
began a ie\i\al lA' learning. He wioiight wisely to combine 
the best cleiiiciiis (»f Komaii and of 'r«>utonie society into a 
new civilizal ion. /// his i'.in/iirr irt if fn.\-r<l tlir rarmus ,s7/ram.v 

' Tlw trriii •Mid.ll.' .\ki>s" is used f..r llio conturios fn.ni KM) to loOO. or 
from tlic Teutonif iiivasion.s to the discovery of America. These centurie.s 
cover that "MedievaF' periful whicli intervenes between the distinctly 
Aticictit and the distinctly Modirn period. 



AND OUR HERITAGE 



263 



of influence ivhich the earlier world conirihuted to our modern 
world. 

The scene of history had shift etl to the West once more, and 
this time it had shrunken in size. Some Teutonic districts 
outside the old Roman world had been added ; but vast areas 
of the Roman territory itself had been abandoned. The 
Euphrates, the Nile, the Eastern Mediterranean, all Asia with 
Eastern Europe to the Adriatic, and Africa with Western 
Europe to the Pyrenees, were gone. The Mediterranean, the 
central highway of the old Roman world, had become an ill- 
defended moat between Christian Europe and Mohammedan 
Africa ; and its ancient place was taken over, as well as might 
be, by the Rhine and the North Sea. 



Scene of 
" history " 
shifted to 
" Western 
Europe " 



We can now sum up the inheritance with which "Western 
Europe" began. 

Through Rome the W^estern peoples were the heirs of Greek Our debt to 
mind and Oriental hand, including most of those mechanical the ancient 
arts which had been built up in dim centuries by Egyptian, 
Babylonian, and Phoenician ; and though much of this inherit- 
ance, both intellectual and material, was forgotten or neglected 
for hundreds of years, most of it was finally to be recovered. 
Rome also passed on Christianity and its church organization. 

Rome herself had contributed (1) a universal language, which 
was long to serve as a common medium of learning and inter- 
course for all the peoples of Western Europe ; (2) Roman law ; 
(3) municipal institutions, in southern Europe ; (4) the impe- 
rial idea — the conception of one, lasting, universal, supreme au- 
thority, to which the world owed obedience. 

The fresh blood of the Teutons ^ reinvigorated the old races, 
and so provided the men who for centuries were to do the 



1 The use of the words German and Teuton in the above treatment calls 
for a word of caution. The mingling of Teutonic and Roman elements 
in our civilization took place not in Germany but in the lands we call Eng- 
land, France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain. The people who brought the 
Teutonic contributions into those lands were not the ancestors of the mod- 
ern Germans — any more than were other Teutons, like the Danes and 
Swedes, who never entered Germanv. 



204 



TUK EMPIUK OF ClIAULKMACXK 



world's work. 77/r Tcuhms contrilxitcd, too, certain dofinito 
ideas and institntions : (1) a new sense of personal inde- 
ptMidenee; (2) a i)()nd of jx-i'sonal loyalty lietween chieftain 
and follower, in contrast with the old Roman loyalty to the 
state; ()i) a new cfKuirr for democracy, esjxciall.N in the popnlar 
assemblies of diiVerent *i,rades in England. 

Out of Roman and Teutonic elements there had already de- 
veloped a new serf organization of labor ; a new nobility ; and 
a new Romano-Teutonic kingship — and now there was to grow 
out of them a new feudalism fell. x\x). 

For Fuhtheu Rkauino. — 0«!;g's Source Book, eh. x; Hodgkin's 
Chaiie.s (he Great; Davis' Chdrletnagnc; Masterman's Dawn of Me- 
dieval Europe. 




ThK FiKI I)S of AnCIKNT HiSTOIlY. 




CHAPTER XXX 



THE FEUDAL AGE, 800-1300 

I. THE NEW BARBARIAN ATTACK 

'^Frorn the fury of the Northmen, Lord, deliver us." — Prayer in 
Church Service of Tenth Century. 

Charlemagne died in 814, and his empire did not long outlive 
him. His brilliant attempt to bring Western Europe into order 
and union was followed by a dismal period of reaction and 
turmoil, while his ignoble descendants sought only to see who 
could grab the largest slices of the realm. The most important 
of these selfish contests closed in S43 with the Treaty of Verdun. 

This treaty begins the map of modern Europe. Lothair, 
Charlemagne's eldest grandson, held the title Emperor, and 
so he was now given North Italy and a narrow strip of land 
from Italy to the North Sea — that he might keep the two 
imperial capitals, Rome and Aachen. The rest of the Empire, 
lying east and west of this middle strip, was broken into two 
kingdoms for Lothair's two brothers. 

The eastern kingdom was purely German. In the western, 
the Teutonic rulers were being absorbed rapidly into the older 
Roman and Gallic populations, to grow into France. Lothair's 
unwieldy "Middle Europe" proved the weakest of the three. 
Italy fell away at once. Then the northern portion, part 
French, part German, crumbled into "little states" that con- 

265 



The 

division of 
Verdun, 
843 A.D 



Beginnings 
of France 
and Ger- 
many 



Degenerate 

Carolin- 

gians 



2G(i 



WKSTKUX KrUOl'K -XIXTII CKXTUKV 



New bar- 
barian in- 
roads 



The 
Norsemen 



fused tlu' iiuij) of Europe for ('{'nturies, uiost of tlieui to he 
Hl)sor))e(I finally by more powerful neighbors. 

For a eentury after Verdun, politieal history remained a 
l)l()ody tangle of treaeherous family quarrels, while the descend- 
ants of the Hammer and the Great were known as the Bald, 
the Simple, the Fat, the Lazy. And now distracted Europe 
was imperiled by a new danger from without. Once more bar- 
barian invasions threatened the civilized world. On the east, 
hordes of wild Sldvs and of wilder llungariam broke across 
the frontiers, ravaged Germany, and penetrated sometimes even 
to Rome or to Toulouse in southern France; the Mohnmmcdan 




Remains of a Viking Ship found buried in sand at Clokstad. Norway. 
It is of oak. unpaintod. 70' 4" by Ifi^'; fi feet deep in the middle. 

.Uoor.s- from Africa attacked Italy and Sicily, establishing them- 
selves firudy in many districts; and fierce Aor.sr j)irates harn(>d 
every coast. 

The Norsemen were a new branch of the Teutons, and the 
fiercest and wildest of that race. They dwelt in the Scandi- 
na\ian i)cninsulas, and were still heathen. They had taken 
IK) i)art in the earlier T<'ut()nic invasions; but. in the ninth 
centur\-, ])oi)ulation was becoming too crowded for their bleak 
lands, and they were driven to seek new homes. Sonic of them 
colonized distant Iceland, but the greater number resorted to 
raiding richer countries. The Swedes conquered Finns and 



"BRITAIN" BECOMES "ENGLAND 267 

Slavs on the east, while Danish and Norse "Vikings" ("sons 
of the fiords") set forth upon "the pathway of the swans," 
in fleets, sometimes of hundreds of boats, to harry western 
Europe. Driving their liglit craft far up the rivers, they then 
seized horses and ra\aged at will, sacking cities like Hamburg, 
Rouen, Paris, Nantes, Tours, Cologne, and stabling their steeds 
in the cathedral of Aachen about the tomb of Charlemagne. 
At last, like the earlier Teutons, the Norsemen from plun- 
derers became conquerors. They settled the Orkneys and 
Shetlands and patches on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, 
and finally established themselves in the north of France — 
named, from them, Normandy — and in the east of England. 

II. BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND 

We must go back to note how Britain had become England. The 

In 408 the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain to 'r®"*o"ic 

. . conquest of 

defend Italy against the threatened invasion by the Goths Britain, 

(p. 245). This left the dismayed Romanized Britons to defend 449-6oo 
themselves as best they could against the wild Celts ^ from the 
Scottish mountains and the Teutonic Arigles and Saxo7is from 
the sea side. The Britons called in these Teutons to beat off 
the other foe, and (449) these dangerous protectors began to 
take the land for their own, — in many httle kingdoms. 

This conquest, unlike that of Gaul and Spain, was very slow. The con- 
It took the Teutons a century and a half (till about 600) to ^^^ ^^^^ 
master the eastern half of the island. Coming by sea, they thorough 
came necessarily in small bands. They were still pagans: 
so they spread ruthless destruction and provoked desperate 
resistance. Moreover Britain had been less completel}^ Roman- 
ized than the continental provinces were : there was more forest 
and marsh, and fewer Roman roads ; hence the natives found 
it easier to make repeated stands. And because the co7iquest was 
slow, it was thorough. Eastern England became strictly a 
Teutonic land. Roman institutions and language vanished, 
and the Romanized natives were slain or enslaved. 

1 Celt includes the Highland Scots, the Irish, the Gauls of France, and 
the native Britons of Bi-itain before the Teutonic conquest. 



2G8 WKSTFRN EIIROPK — XIXTII (M^NTURY 

Ahout GOO A.D. Christian missionaries from Rome (and some 
from Ireland) converted these heatlien conquerors. And in 




I. .\i \Kii\ s V 111 KCH, Nkak Caxterbury. — Frf)ni a photograph. Parts 
of the l)uiklinK are very old and may have Ijehmgod to a church of the 
Roman jjoriod. At all events, on this site was the first Christian church 
used by Augustine and his fellow missionaries, sent out l)y Pope Gregorj' 
to convert the Teutonic states in Britain, (^ueen liertha, a Prankish 
princess, who had married the heathen king ol Kent, secured them 
this i)rivilege. Her tomb is shown in the church. 



the mi(Mle of the niiitli century VAjJxii, kimj of the ]\r,sf Saxojis 
(Wessex, in South Kn,L,dand), \u-ddv liimself also kinj; of the 
Anodes (Kn«;lish) and (inall\' hrouf/hf (ill ihc T( tifofilc })(irf.'i of 

p — ] the i.sldfid un(/<r his authorlti/ 

I I as head kin^. Then came 

VJc^ sf-rtr pr^Jlw^j^owjJS^^ ! the Danish invasions. 
The Danes In 871 , after a ^rcat battle 

'" England i„ ^vhicli the kin J? of Wessex 

was slain, the Danes became 

for ;i time masters of Enj;- 

land. Tlie jxnver of Wessex 

Plowing — from an Anglo-Saxon manu- was soon rc\i\(Ml however 

script in the Briti.sh Museum. ],^. Alfred the Great (871- 

001). The Danes were defeated. l)ai)ti/ed, and shut off in 
the "Danelaw" nortlu^ast of Watlin<: Street (an old Roman 







ENGLAND 

AND 

THE DANELAGH 

about 900 

SCALE OF MILES 








'U'^'^'f, \ \ 




^ fektewsbkfj ^ 



^v.rx""^'^ 







^^JlJ?. II L I> 1. N 1> EN C 1 e »- K ♦ n i: 





FEUDALISM 



269 



road from London to Chester) ; and all the Teutonic states in 
South England now willingly accepted the rule of Wessex for 
protection against the Dane. Alfred gave the rest of his splendid 
life to heal the wounds of his kingdom, and, more successfully 
than Charlemagne, to revive learning in a barbarous age — 
though at first there could be found "not one priest" in the 
kingdom who could understand the church services that he 
mumbled by rote — and Alfred's sons and grandson, in a 
measure, reconquered Danish England. 



Alfred the 
Great 



IIL FEUDALISM 

"A protest of barbarism against barbarism." — Taine. 



After Charlemagne, the ninth century on 
became a time of indescriba])le horror. The 
the weak, and brigands 
worked their will in plun- 
der and torture. But out 
of this anarchy emerged a 
new social order. Here and 
there, and in ever growing 
numbers, some petty chief 
— retired bandit, rude 
huntsman, or old officer of 
a king — planted himself 
firmly on a small domain, 
fortifying a stockaded 
house and gathering a 
troop of fighters under him 
to protect it. By so doing, 
he became the protector 
of others. The neighbor- 
hood turned gladly to any 
strong man as its defender 
and master. Weaker land- 
lords surrendered ("com- 
mended") their lands to 
him, receiving them back 



the continent 
strong robbed 




Entrance to a Feudal Castle. — From 
Gautier's La Chevalerie. The draw-bridge 
crossed themoat, or ditch, that surrounded 
a castle. When it was raised, the port- 
cullis (whose massive iron teeth can be 
seen in the doorway) was let fall. 



The anarchy 
of the ninth 
century 
forces 
Europe into 
feudalism 



270 



TIIK KKl'DAL A(,l< 



as ''fiif'S.'' Tlu'v l)t'caiiK' his ra.v.va/.v; \w hccame their lord 
The former "free peasants," on the lord's own hinds and on 
the hinds of his vassals, saw that they were no longer at the 
niercN- of any ehance marauder. They ventured again to plow 
and sow, and ])erha])s they were permitted in part to reap. 
On their part, they eultivated also the lord's crop, and paid 
him dues for house, for cattle, and for each sale or inheritance. 
The village became his village; the inhabitants, his villeins. 
Fugiti\'e wretclies, too, without the old resident's claim to con- 
sideration, gathered on the lord's lands to receive such measure 




Honi.AM ("asti-k in 1;n(;i,\\i 



urll-prcscrvcil iiicdirval sfructurc 



Origin of 
the feudal 
privileges of 
the nobles 



of mercy as he might grant, and usually sank into the class of 
serfs of wliom there were aln^ady many on all estates. 

In return for th(> i)rotecti()n \\v gave, the lord assunuMl great 
l)rivileges, uns])eakal>ly obnoxious in later centuries, but in their 
origin connected with some benefit. The noble slew the wild 
beast — and came to ha\'e the sole right to hunt. .\s organizer 
of labor, lie forced the \illeins to l)uild the mill {his mill), the 
o\cn, the ferry, the bridge, the highway; then he took toll 
for the use of each — and later he ileniolished mills that the 
\illeins wIsIkmI to build for tin insehes. 



CASTLES AND MEN-AT-ARMS 



271 



castle 



And the 
ironclad 
cavalry 



Finally each district had its body of mailed horsemen and its 
circle of frowning castles. These two features typify the new 
order — which we call feudalism. 

"Castles" rose at every ford and above each mountain pass The feudal 
and on every hill commanding a fertile plain. At first they 
were mere wooden blockhouses, but soon they grew into those 
enormous structures of massive stone, crowned by frowning 
])attlements and inclosing many acres, 
whose picturesque gray ruins still 
dot the landscape in Europe. 

Upon even the early castle, the 
Norse invader spent his force in vain ; 
while each such fortress was ready 
to pour forth its band of trained 
men-at-arms (horsemen in mail) to 
cut off stragglers and hold the fords. 
The raider's day was over — but 
meanwhile the old Teutonic militia, 
in which every freeman had his place, 
had given way to an ironclad cav- 
alry, the resistless weapon of a new 
feudal aristocracy, which could ride 
down foot-soldiers {mfa7itvy) at will — 
till the invention of gunpowder, cen- 
turies later, helped again to make 
fighting men equal. 




Knight in Plate Armok, 
visor up. — From Lacroix, 
Vie Militaire. Plate armor Feudal 
came in only about 1300, " decentral- 
succeeding lighter chain ization " 
mail. 



Each petty district teas practically in- 
dependent of every other district. The 
king had been expected to protect 
every corner of his realm. Actually he had protected only some 
central district ; but under feudalism each little chieftain proved 
able to protect his small corner, when he had seized the king's 
powers there. His territory was a little state. The great nobles 
coined money and made war like very kings. Indeed a vassal 
owed allegiance to his overlords two or more grades above him 
only through the one overlord just above him.. He must follow his 



272 



Till-: FKl DAL A(iK 



Economic 
causes of 
feudalism 



Feudal 
land- 
holding 



Lords 

and vassals 



immediate lord to war against them and even against his king. 
Tins drrruiralizdiion was tlie result not only of military needs 
l)ul also ol" ceoiiomic ' needs — of the lack of money and the 
lack of roads. The rich man's wealth was all in land; and 
he eould make his land pay him only by renting it out for 
services or for produce. "Nobles" paid him for parts of it 
by fighting for him. Workers paid liim for other parts by rais- 
ing and harvesting his crops and by gi\ing him part of their 
own. A man without land was glad to pay so for the use of 
some in one way or the other. 

In theory, the holder of any piece of land icas a tentud of some 
higher landlord. The king was the supreme landlord. He let 
outmost of the land of the kingdom, on terms of military serv- 
ice, to great vassals. Each of these parceled out most of what 
he received, on like terms, to smaller vassals ; and so on, perhaps 
through six or seven steps, until the smallest division was reached 
that could support a mailed horseman. 

But in practice there was no such regularity. The various 
grades were interlocked in the most confusing way. Except for 
the smallest knight^>, all landlords of the fighting class were 
"suzerains" (liege lords) ; and, except perhaps the king, all 
were vassals. There was no great social distinction between 
lord and vassals. The " vassal" was always a "noble," and his 
service was always "honorable," — never to be confounded 
with the "ignoble" service paid by serfs and villeins. 

The relation between suzerain and vassal had the character 
of a bargain for nnitual advantage. Th<> vassal was to ])resent 
himself at the call of his lord to serxc in war. with followers 
according to the size of his fi(>f, but oidy for short terms and 
usually not to go "out of the realm." He nuist also serve in 
the lord's "court" twice or thrice a \ear, to advise in matters 
of j)oliey and to give judgment in disputes between vassals. 
He did not pay "taxes," in our sense, but on frequent occasions 
he did have to make to the lord certain financial contributions — 
"reliefs" and "aids." The lord, on his ])art. was bound to 

1 Eninomic.s refers to wcaltli. as pulitir.s floo.s (<. jiovcrniiiont. 



PRIVATE WAUS 273 

defend his vassal, to treat him justly, and to see that he found 
just treatment from his co- vassals. 

Feudal theory, then, paid elaborate regard to rights; but Private 
feudal ijractice was mainly a matter of force. It was not easy to ^" 
enforce the decisions of the crude courts against a noble offender 
who chose to resist, and in any case war was thought the most 
honorable way to settle disputes. Like the trial by combat, 
it was considered an appeal to the judgment of God. "Private 
wars," between noble and noble, became a chief evil of the age. 
They hindered the growth of industry, and commonly they hurt 
neutral parties more than belligerents. There was little actual 
suffering by the warring nobles, and very little heroism. The 
weaker party usually shut itself up in its castle. The stronger 
side ravaged the villages in the neighborhood, driving off the 
cattle and perhaps torturing the peasants for their small hidden 
treasures, and outraging the women. 

Clergy and nobles, praying class and figUting class, were The 
supported by a vastly larger number of "ignoble" workers, who 
were usually referred to only as other live stock might be men- 
tioned. Each noble had to keep some of his land for the support 
of his own household and for other revenue. This "domain" 
land was cultivated by the lord's serfs and villeins, under 
direction of a bailiff, or steward. The peasant workers did 
not live in scattered farmhouses, each on its own field ; they 
were grouped in little villages of twenty or fifty dwellings, as 
in Europe to-day. Such a village, with its adjoining ''fields,'' 
was a "manor.'' 

Each manor had its church, at a little distance, and usually 
its manor house — the lord's castle on a hill above the other 
dwellings, or maybe a house only a trifle better than the homes 
of the villeins, used by the lord's steward. At one end of the 
street stood the lord's smithy ; and near by, on some con\'enient 
stream, was the lord's mill. 

As in the last Roman days (p. 235), the serf was bound to Serfs 
the soil by law : he could not leave it, but neither could he be *?jj^ . 
sold apart from it. He had his own bit of ground to cultivate, 



feudal 
manor 



274 



Till-: FKLDAL ACIK 



Homes of 
the peasants 



at siicli times as the lord's hailitV did not cull him to labor on the 
lord's land. Usually tlie hailitt' summoned tlie serfs in turn, 
each for two or for three days each week; l)ut in liarvest or 
haying he might keep them all busy, to the ruin of their own 
little crops. If the serf did get a crop, he had to pay a large 
part of it for the use of his land. He paid also a multitude of 
other dues and fines — sometimes in money, l)ut usually " in 
kind," — eggs, a goose, a cock, a calf, a portion of grain. 

The villrifi was a step higher. He was "free" in person. 
That is, he could leave his land and ehantre lords at will ; hut 




A Reaper's Cakt Going up Hill. — After a fourteenth century nmiiu- 
script. The force of men and horses, and the tharactor of the wheels, 
indicates the nature of the roads. (The steepness of the hill is exag- 
gerated, to fit the picture to the .space in the manuscript.) 

he had to have sonir lord. The landless and masterless man was 
an outlaw, at tlu' mercy of any lord. In jirofits from labor and in 
manner of life there was little to choose between serf and \ illcin. 
The homes, serf's nr xillrin's. wrrc low. (iltliy. earth-Hoored, 
straw-thatclird. oiir-i-ooni ho\ ris of wood and sticks plastered 
together witli nnid. withoiil window or ehininey (exeej)! a hole 
in the roof). Thej^e home^ straggled along either side of an 
irregular lane, where i)oultry, i)igs, and children played together 
in th(> dirt. Behind each house was its weedy garden patch, 
and its low stable. 



HOW THE COMMON PEOPLE LIVED 



275 



Small as the house was it was not cluttered with furniture. 
A handmill for grinding meal, or at least a stone mortar in 
which to crush grain, a pot and kettle, possibly a feather bed, 
one or two rude benches, and a few tools for the peasant's 
work, made up the contents of even the well-to-do homes. 

Farming was very crude. The yloidand was divided into Cultivation 

three great ''fields.'' These were unfenced, and lay about the pf the land 
•n J • /^ /^ 1 1 i^ common 

Village at any convenient spots. One field was sown to wheat 

(in the fall) ; one to rye or barley (in the spring) ; and the third 

lay fallow, to recuperate. The next year this third field would 

be the wheat land, while the old wheat field would raise the 

barley, and so on. This primitive "rotation of crops" kept a 

third of the land idle. 

Every "field" was divided into a great number of narrow 
strips, each as nearly as possible a "furrow-long " and one, two, 
or four rods wide, so 
that each contained 
from a quarter of an 
acre to an acre. Usu- 
ally the strips were 
separated by "balks," 
or ridges of turf. A 
peasant's holding was 
about thirty acres, ten 
acres in each " field " ; 
and his share in each 
lay not in one piece, 
but in fifteen or thirty 
scattered strips. (See 
cut, p. 252.) 

This kind of holding compelled a "common" cultivation. 
That is, each man must sow what his neighbor sowed ; and as 
a rule, each could sow, till, and harvest only when his neighbors 
did. Three-fold the seed> or six bushels of wheat to the acre, 
was a good crop in the thirteenth century. There were of course 
extensive pasture and wood lands for the cattle and swine. 

Farm animals were small. The wooden plow required eight 




Falconry. — From a medieval manuscript re- 
produced by Lacroix. A falconer, to capture 
and train young hawks to bring game to the 
master, was among the most trusted under- 
oflScials of each castle. 



27() 



THK FKrDA]. AdK 



Small 
variety 
in food 



Life in 
the manor 



Life in 
the castle 



oxen, and thon It did liai-dly more than scratch the surface of 
the ^n-ound. Carts \v('i(> few and cnnihrous. There was little 
or IK) cultivation of root foods. Potatoes, of course, were un- 
known. Sometimes a few turnips and cahhaj^es and carrots, 
rather uiieatahle \arieties j)r()l)ahjy, were grown in garden 
plots behind the houses. Well-to-do peasants liad a hive of 
bees in the garden plot. Honey was the chief luxury of the 
poor : sugar was still unknown in Europe. It was difficult 
to carry enough animals through the winter for the necessary 
farm work and breeding; so those to be used for food were 
killed in the fall and salted down. The large use of salt meat 
and the little variety in food caused loathsome diseases. 

Kdch village was a world by itself. P^ven the different \illages 
of the same lord had little intercourse with one another. The 
lord's bailiff secured from some dis- 
tant market the three outside products 
needed, — salt, millstones, and iron for 
the plowshares and for other tools. 
Kxcept for this, a \illage was hardly 
touched by the outside world — unless 
a war desolated it, or a royal proces- 
sion chanced to pass through it. 

The noble classes li\-ed a life hardly 
more attractive to us. They dwelt in 
gloomy fortresses over dark dungeons 
where ])risoners rotted. They had 
fighting for business, and iuinting with 
hound and hawk, and ])la\ing at fight- 
ing (in tournament and joust), for 
A Court Fool. — .Vftoru pl^-asures. The ladies l)usied theni- 
medicval miniature in , i i • i • 

hrilliant errors. Many selves over tapestries and embroideries, 

in the chambers. Ga\- ])ages flitted 
tlu-ough tlir halls, or i)laycd at chess in 
the deep windows. And in the courtyard lounged grulf men- 
at-arms, ready with blind obedience to follow the lord of the 
castle on any foray or even in an attack ujx)!! tln-ir king. 

The n«>l)ie hunted for food, (juite as much as for s|K)rt, and 




Kroat l«)rd!- 
jesters. 



koi)t such 



CHIVALRY 



277 



and story 
telling 



he did not suffer from lack of fresh meat. The game in forest Hunting 

and stream was his : for a common man to kill deer or hare or 

wild duck or trout, was to lose hand or eyes or life. Feasting Feasting 

filled a large part of the noble's life. Meals were served in the 

great hall of the castle, and were 

the social hours of the day. 

Tables were set out on movable 

trestles, and the household, visitors, 

and dependents gathered about 

them on seats and benches, with 

nice respect for rank, — the master 

and his noblest guests at the head, 

on a raised platform, or "dais," 

and the lowest servants toward 

the bottom of the long line. A 

profusion of food in many courses, 

especially at the midday "dinner," 

was carried in from the kitchen 

across the open courtyard. Peacocks, swans, w^hole boars were 

favorite roasts, and huge venison "pies" were a common dish. 

At each guest 's place was a knife, to cut slices from the roasts 
within his reach, and a spoon for broths, but no fork or napkin 
or plate. Each one dipped his hand into the pasties, carry- 
ing the dripping food directly to his mouth. Loaves of bread 
were crumbled up and rolled between the hands to wipe off the 
surplus gravy, and then thrown to the dogs under the tables. 
The food was washed down with huge draughts of wine, usually 
diluted with water. Intervals between courses were filled with 
story telling and song, or by rude jokes from the lord's "fool," 
or perhaps traveling jugglers were brought in to perform. 




Jugglers in Sword-dance. — 
From a medieval manuscript. 



This grim life had its romantic side, indicated to us by the 
name chivalry (from the French cheval, horse) which has come 
to stand for the whole institution of knighthood. From the age 
of seven to that of fifteen, a noble boy usually served as a page 
in some castle (commonly not his own father's), where he was 
trained daily in the use of light arms (cut on p. 278) and 



278 



rill': FEUDAL AGK 



where he waited upon the ladies, — who in return taii^'lit liini 
courtesy. 

Tlien for hw or six years as a ,squirr, the youth attended 
Uj)on tlie lord of the castle, overseeing, too, in the field and in 
the hunt, the care of the lord's horse and armor. Tlien he was 
ready to become a knight — after a solemn religious ceremony — 
hy receiving the (iccohidc (a light blow upon his shoulder as he 




1"HK ExKK( l>h. «.(• lHh ()[ IN IAIN. -- rili> >l|ip'.\> ;ili ill 1 1 .< .| i a 1 1 i |>,iii "I till- 

schooling of iiohlo rhildivn. The hoys rido, hy (virns. at the woo(1(mi 
fipure. If the ridor strikes the shield squarely i" tlie center, it is well. If 
he hits only a alanciiiK hlow. the wooden figure swings on its foot and 
whacks him with its club as he pas.ses. 



knelt) from some older knight. More honored, hut rarer, wjis 
the nol)l(> who wjis dul)l)ed knight hy some famous leader on 
the field of victory for distinguished hrax cry. 

Chivalry has Ixm^u called '* the flower of feudalism." True, 
its virtues (bravery and dexotion to ladies —of iiohir hirtli) were 
carried to fantastic extremes; and true, too. its si)irit was 
wholly a class spirit, recognizing no ol)iigation outside the noble 
class. Still chivalry did softiMi mann<M*s and help somewhat in 
that brutal age to ele\ate woman, and it had iiuieh to do with 



THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH 279 

creating our idea of a gentleman. Toward the year 1400, the 
EngHsh poet Chaucer gives this picture of his ideal knight : 

" A knight there was, and that a worthy man, 
That fro the time that he first began 
To riden out, he loved chivalry, 
Truth and honor, freedom and courtesy. . . 
And tho that he was worthy, he was wise, 
And of his port as meek as is a maid. 
And never yet no villainy he said. 
In all his life, unto no manner wight. 
He was a very perfect, gentle knight." 

For Further Reading. — Excellent "source" material may be 
found in Robinson's Readings or in Ogg's Source Book, and in Lanier's 
The Boy's Froissart. 

Historical fiction upon the feudal period is particularly valuable. 
Scott's novels, of course, must not be overlooked, although they give a 
false glamour to the age. They should be corrected by "Mark 
Twain's" Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur's Court. Other excel- 
lent portraits are given in Robert Louis Stevenson's Black Arrow and 
Conan Doyle's White Company. Charlotte Yonge's Little Duke and 
Stockton's Story of Viteau are good for young students and will be 
enjoyed by older ones. 

IV. THE CHURCH IN THE FEUDAL AGE 

The church in the feudal age was not only a religious organiza- The church 
tion : it was also a government. Its officers exercised many go^^ernnient 
powers that have now been handed over to civil ^ officers. Pub- 
lic order depended upon it almost as completely as did private 
morals. With its spiritual thunders and the threat of its 
curse, it often protected the widow and orphan, and others 
in danger of oppression, from brutal barons who had respect 
for no earthly power. 

All Christendom was made up of parishes, — the smallest The bishop 
church units (p. 255). A group of parishes made up the diocese 
of a bishop. Nearl}'^ every town of any consequence in the 
twelfth centur}^ was a bishop's seat. The bishop was the main- 
spring in church government. He was revered as the suc- 
cessor of the apostles, and was subject only to the guidance of 

1 Civil is used very commonly in contrast to ecdesiasiic.al. 



280 



TIIK FI<:rDAI. .\(\K 



Benefit 
of clergy 



The arch- 
bishop 



t\\v pope (succrssor to tlic cliicl' ol" tlu' apostles). ()rijj;inall\ , 
the bishop's special dut\ had Ix'en to oversee the parish priests ; 
hut, with the f,M*o\vtli of tlie church, he liiul couie to have other 
functious. He was a <;rcat feuchil laudlord, owin^ uiilitar\ 
service to one or uiore suzeraius, aud holdiu^^ power over uuiny 
temporal vassals ; he had charge of extensive cluu'ch property 
in his diocese, and of the collection of churcli re\enues ; and 
he looked after the enforcement of the laws of the church. 
This "canon law" liad i^rown into a complex system. To ad- 
minister justice under it, each hishop held a court, made up of 
trained churchmen. This court had jurisdiction not merely 
over matters pertaining to tlie church : it tried any case that 
involved a clergyman or any one else under the special protec- 
tion of the church. To help in these duties, the bishop had a 
body of assistant clergy called canons. On the death of the 
bishop, this body (the "cathedral chapter") chose his successor, 
— subject perhaps to the approval of some king or other tem- 
])()ral ruler. 

This right of the clergy to be tried in clerical courts was 
known as "benefit of clergy." The practice had its good side. 
Ordinary courts and ordinary law partook of the violent and 
ferocious life of the age. Trials were rude ; and ghastly punish- 
ments were inflicted for tri\ ial ofl'enses, — often, no doubt, 
upon the innocent. It was a gain when the peaceful and moral 
part of society secured the right to trial in more intelligent courts 
and by more civilized codes. 

Hut the church law was too mild to deal with serious crimes. 
Its adxantages tempted men to "take IIoIn Ordei-s." until, 
besides the preaching clergy and the monks, the land swarmed 
with " clerics" who were really oidy lawyers, secretaries, scholars, 
teachers, or mere ad\ cnturcrs. Some of these, by their crimes, 
brought disgrace uj)()n the church and danger to the state. 

.1 Niiuihtr oj (liorcscs jtiddc up d jjronnrr. Over each prov- 
ince, seated in its most important city, was an archbishop, 
with general su|)er\ ision oxer the other bish()j)s of tlie ])rovince. 
His court, too, heard aj)i)cals from theirs. 



THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH 281 

At the head of all this hierarchy stood the pope, the spiritual The pope 
monarch of Christendom. He was supreme lawgiver, supreme 
judge, supreme executive. He issued new laws in the form of 
hulls (so-called from the gold seal, or bulla, on the documents), 
and he set aside old laws by his dispensations, — as when it 
seemed best to him to permit cousins to marry (a thing forbid- 
den by the canon law). His court heard appeals from the 
courts of bishop and archbishop, and likewise from many of 
the temporal courts of Christendom. Now and then he set 
aside appointments of bishops and other clergy, and himself 
filled the vacancies. At times he also sent legates into different 
countries, to represent his authority directly. A legate could 
revoke the judgment of a bishop's court, remove bishops, and 
haughtily command obedience from kings, quite as Shakspere 
pictures in his King John. For aid in his high office the pope College of 
gathered about him a " college "(collection) of cardinals. At ^^^^^^^^ 
first this body comprised only seven bishops of Rome and its 
vicinity ; but it grew to include great churchmen in all coun- 
tries. 

To compel obedience, bishops and pope had two mighty Excommu- 
weapons — excommunication and interdict. An excommuni- ^^^ ^°^ 
cated man was shut out from all religious communion. He 
could attend no church service, receive no sacrament, and at 
death, if still unforgiven, his body could not recei^'e Christian 
burial. Excommunication was also a boycott for all social 
and business relations. If obeyed by the community, it cut a 
man off absolutely from all communication with his fellows, and 
made him an outlaw. No one might speak to him or give him 
food or shelter, under danger of similar penalty, and his very 
presence was shunned like the pestilence. What excommuni- Interdict 
cation was to the individual, the interdict was to a district or 
a nation. Churches were closed, and no religious ceremonies 
were permitted, except the rites of baptism and of extreme 
unction. No marriage could be performed, and there could be 
no burial in consecrated ground. " The dead were left unburied, 
and the living were unblessed." 



'2S2 



TIIK FKl'DAL A(JK 



The de- 
mocracy of 
the church 



The village 
priest 



Thus t\\v cliiirc'li was a vast centralizod monarchy, with its 
icuular oiHcrrs, its laws and Ic^ishiturcs and jud^^cs, its taxes, 
its t(MTil)l(> j)unislinients — and its j)r()niis(' of eternal reward. 
And yet this <;overnni(Mit was more democratic in spirit tlian 
feudal society was. Men of humblest birth often rose to its 
loftiest offices. Gregory VII, who set his foot u})on the neck 
of the mightiest king in Europe, was the son of a poor peasant. 

The church was the only 
part of society in the Mid- 
dle Ages where study and 
intellectual ability could 
lift a poor boy to power — 
and so it was recruited 
from the best minds. 

Of all this mighty or- 
ganization, the village 
j)riest brought the church 
closest liome to the mass of 
the people. The great ec- 
clesiastics — bishops, arch- 
bisli()j)s,and abbots — were 
often from the noble class 
by birth, and in any case 
they alwa\s became part 
of the aristocracy. But 
the rural ])riest was com- 
monly a ])easant in origin, 
and he often remained es- 
sentially a jXNisant in his life. — marr\ ing in the village (until the 
eleventh century), and working in tlie fields with his neighbors. 
Hewasa})easant with a somewhat better income than his fellows, 
with a little learning, a revered position, and with great power 
for gotxl. He christened. absoKcd. marrie<l. and burie<l his 
j)arishioners. lookrd after their bodily welfare so far as he knew 
how. comforted the heart-sore and wretched, and taught all, 
by word and e\ami)le, to hold fast to right lixing. Tin church 
hwld'iuij it'd.s also fhr socidi cmftr nf fhr /xtrLsh. Near it, f)n 




NoHM.vx DoouwAY (thc West Portal) 
Iffley Church, a small hut beautiful 
twelfth-century church in a little English 
villaue near Oxford. Xornian architec- 
ture used the roiuid arch and nuich i)laiii 
hut effective oriiaintMit. It was soon to 
Ki\-e way to th(> (lothic See opi)osite. 



PLATE XLIV 




Salisbury Cathedral, a fine example of early English Gothic, 1200-1250. 
(The glorious elms of the Cathedral Close are now gone — cut for lumber 
during the World War.) The stone spire rises 404 feet from the ground- 
To carry such immense weight was a great engineering problem. Cf- 
text at bottom of Plates XLVIII, XLIX, to see how such problems 
were solved in this new style of architecture. Toward the extreme right 
one side of the cloisters is just visible (cf. p. 288) . 



THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH 283 

Sunday, between the sacred services, the people found their 
chief recreation in sports and games. And from its steps the 
priest gave to them what news they received from the outside 
world, reading aloud there, too, any rare letter that some adven- 
turous wanderer might be able to get written for him b}' some 
stranger -priest. 

In the twelfth century, when, as we shall see, towns began to The friars 
grow up, these did not fit into the old organization of the church. ^^^ j.^ 
Neither parish priests nor monks took care of the religious needs 
of the crowded populations. The poorer inhabitants were 
miserable in body, too, beyond all words, — fever and plague 
stricken, perishing of want and filth. Early in the thirteenth 
century, these conditions called forth a religious revival, with 
the rise of two new religious orders — the Franciscan and the 
Dominican brotherhoods. These "begging friars" went forth, 
two and two, to the poor and the outcasts, to act as healers and 
preachers. They were mmionar?/ monks. 

V. ENGLAND IN THE FEUDAL AGE 

Long l)efore the year 1000 the Saxons in England had learned Local self- 
to ivork many forms of local self-government — to manage many ^^^^J?™^^* 
of their own affairs at their own doors, not only in village of represen- 
(manor) "courts," but also in courts (assemblies) of the larger ^*^o" ^^ 
units, the hundreds and shires (counties). Moreover, they had England 
become familiar with the practice of sending a sort of representa- 
tive from the village to these larger assemblies — since all men 
could not attend these in person. 

True, after the year 900 an irregular Saxon feudalism had been Saxon 
growing up; and these local "courts" had fallen largely under ^®"<^*^*sm 
the control of neighboring landlords. Still enough activity 
among the people themselves survived so that these assemblies, 
with their representative principle, vv^ere to prove the cradle of 
later English and American- liberty. 

Ill 1066 came the Norman Conquest. A century and a half The Norman 
})efore, Norse pirates had settled in a province of northern ^oj^^^^^t, 
France. In that district of Normandy (p. 2G7), they had 



284 



Till-: FETDAL A(iK 



(juicklv ix'ooino loaders in Frnnkisli " ('i\ ilization," and now 
tlicy trans|)lant(Ml it anioii^Mlic ruder Saxons of Kn^dand, alon^ 
with iniicli new hjood niid new (•Icmciits in l.i iiutiau'c' and iiii- 
j)ortant (•()iitril)Utions in <:;()\('rnnient. 

Sinee the time of Alfred, the eln'ef dan^M-rs to Kn<iiaiid had 
been (1) a j)ossil)le sphttint^; apart of Danish Fiorth and Saxon 
government soutli, and (2) the growth of feudal anarchy. Tlie Norman 
crushed the old north and south into one, and huilt up a een- 



A more 
efficient 
central 



A thousand- 
year 
struggle 
for liberty 




Battle of Hastings. — From the Hayeux Tapestry. The Hayeux i apes- 
try is u linen band 230 feet long and 20 inche.s wide, embroidered in 
colored worsteds, with 72 scenes illustrating the Norman C'on(iuest. 
It was a contemporary work. The scene given here pertains to the close 
of the battle. Harold, the Saxon king, supported by his chosen " hus- 
carles," is making the final stand, beneath the Dragon standard, against 
the Xorman horse led })y Duke William, afterward known as the Con- 
<lU('rr)r. 

tral government strong enough to control the feudal nobles 
and to prevent them from di\iding the kitigly j)()wcr among 
themselves. Local institutions, in tlic main, remained Saxon, 
l)ut the central govcrmnent gained a new <'lii(iency from tlic 
Norman genius for organization. 

.\t the same time, the Norman kings were not su])reme 
enough to become absolute despots. This was chiefly because, 
through dread of the new royal power, concjuering Norman 
noble and concjuered Saxon peoi)le drew together (piickly into 
an English nuiion — ilu first frur nation of Enro/x . Then, in 



ENGLAND: THE NORMAN CONQUEST 285 

centuries of slow, determined progress, this new nation won 
constitutional liberty. 

''Lance and torch and tumult, steel and gray-goose wing, 
Wrenched it, inch and ell and all, slowly from the king." 

And not merely by fighting in the field was this liberty won, 
but, even more, by countless almost unrecorded martyrdoms 
of heroic and often nameless men, on the scaffold, in the dun- 
geon, or, harder still, in broken lives and ruined homes. Thus 
did Englishmen, at a great price, work out, first of all peoples 
for a large territory, the union of a strong central government 
and of free institutions. 

The Conquest drew isolated England back into the thick Reforms of 
of continental politics. Henry II (1154-1189) was the most ^^^^^^ 
powerful monarch of Europe, ruling not only England but more law courts 
than half France as well — as a nominal vassal of the French 
king. Still all the really important results of his long and busy 
reign came in England. Preeminent stands out the organiza- 
tion of the English courts of justice, with circuit judges to spread 
a "common" law throughout the entire realm — in place of 
the varying local customs found in feudal courts in the con- 
tinental countries. At this same time came the development Circuit 

of our grand jury and also of our trial jury. Henrv's reforms, ii^^l®^ ^^ 

, . " the Common 

as completed a century later by the great Edward, gave us the Law 

English judicial system of the present day in almost every 

particular. 

The first Norman king had carried out a great census (recorded in 
Domesday Book) of the people and the resources of the realm. In com- 
piling this census, he relied mainly (in the Norman ignorance of the 
land) upon a body of sworn men (jurors) in each neighborhood. This 
was an old Norman custom; but, while it disappeared in Normandy, 
it had a wonderful development in England. Succeeding kings used 
it in hundreds of cases of which we have record for like though less 
important cases, and probably it was the biggest one element in the 
appearance of representative government (p. 288). 

Between the great Henry and the even greater Edward came 
three weak, would-be tyrants — Richard, John, and the third 



286 



TllK FEUDAL AilK 



Magna 
Carta. 1215 



HtMiry. The inisruU' of Jolin resulted in Ma^qia Carta; that 
of Henr\', in the first true Parhamciit. 

I. Ill IJI'>, in a grassy nH'a(h)w of the Thames caUcd Ruhni/- 
imdr, tlic tyrant .John, hjicked only l)y a few nu'rcrnaries and 
confronted l)y a people in arms, found himself forced to sign 
the Great Charter, "the first great document in the Hihle of 
English Liberties." 

In the main, the cliarter merely restated ancient liberties ; 
I)ut the closing j)ro\ ision expressly sanctioned rebellion against 



jjllnl (ib Vmid ^A^jftW- w «"P nmcr ^hMrhlWomr^^ttr waA^ 



NuUus lilxM- liouio ciiijiatur, vol iuiprisonetur, aut diijsiii.siatur, aut utlaKetur, 
No free wan shall be taken, or imprisoned, or dispossessed, or outlawed, 



<lttr^Wnt^attra\tyu)ii^bo^JWtiWt^^ ft^ tottti tVmiitg ti itif 



aut t'xuletiir, aut aliciuo niodo destruatur. lu-c super cum ibimus nee super 
or ham'shtil. ix 'n an,'/ irai/ (hstroi/xl. nor irill ire yo upon him nor upon 



tuxn 



tmttem nth 4jf«^3u mtwri j^nxm Snmx wr «1 






curu niittemus, nisi per legale judicium pariuni quorum vel per legem terrae. 
him send, exeept hi/ the legal jud/jment nf his peers or hi/ the law 0/ the land. 



ttUi ti^gnwC' mtetig^Vitti Anr^tlkw recttmi anr tttttt 



NuUi vciHlcnms. nuUi ne^ahinius. aut diiTercnuis, rectum aut justiciam- 
To no 01U- will we sell, to no otw will we den;/, or delau, riqht or justice. 

Skction!* 39 AND 40 OF Magna Carta. — Tbo bars arc faesimilcs of the 
writing in the eharter, with the curious abbreviations of the medieval 
Latin. Helow each line is given the Latin in full with a translation. 



And 

American 

liberty 



a king who should refuse to obey it. Tliat is. if sri ihr hue of 
thr land ahorr the hffig\s will. True, in some oIIkm' countries 
during the Middle .\ges. the great vassals extorted charters of 
liberties for th(nis,lr(s from tlieir kings. Hut in this chart(M', 
fhr hdnni.s pronii.^nl fo flnir di j)iii<hnts tin saiiir nijhis thiii dr- 
iiKindrd for fhrm.stirr.^ from fhr kinq, and .special provision.'i looked 
after the welfare of townsmen and even of villeins. In tlie next 
two centuries, English kings were obliged to "confirm " it thirty- 
(Mght times; and its principles, and some of its wording, have 



' ENGLAND : MAGNA CARTA 287 

passed into the constitution and laws of every American 
state. 

The charter defined the "aids" to which suzerains were 
entitled, — and so put an end to extortion. It declared that 
the king could raise no scutage ^ or other unusual "aid" from 
his vassals without the consent of the Great Council, — and 
since all vassals of the king could attend this Council, this 
provision established the principle, No taxation without the con- 
sent of the taxed. It declared an accused man entitled to speedy 
trial, — and so laid the foundation for later laws of habeas 
corpus. It affirmed that no villein, by any fine, should lose 
his oxen or plow, and so foreshadowed our modern laws pro- 
viding that legal suits shall not take from a man his home or his 
tools. Two notable provisions are shown on p. 286. 

2. Henry II and Edward I were the two great "lawgivers" The 
among the English kings. But Henry carried his many re- ^^^^°J."8s 
forms, not by royal decrees, but by a series of "assizes" (codes) ment 
drawn up by the Great Council ; and Edward carried his in 
an even longer series of "statutes" enacted by a new^ national 
legislature which we call Parliament. 

Some sort of "iVssembly" has always made part of the Eng- 
lish government. Under the Saxon kings, the Witan (or meeting 
of Wisemen) sanctioned codes of laws and even deposed and 
elected kings. It consisted of large land-owners and officials 
and the higher clergy, with now and then some mingling of more 
democratic elements, and it was far more powerful than the 
Frankish Mayfield (p. 261). 

After the Conquest, the Witan gave way to the Great Council 
of the Norman kings. This was a feudal gathering — made 
up of lords and bishops, resembhng the Witan, but more aris- 
tocratic, and less powerful. A king was supposed to rule " with 
the advice and consent" of his Council; but in practice that 
body was merely the king's mouthpiece until Henry II raised 
it to real importance. 

All who held land directly of the king ("tenants-in-chief," 

1 A sort of war tax recently introdueed in the place of military service. 



2SS 



THE FEUDAL AGE 



or "})ar()ns") were entitleci to attt'iid the Council, })iit only tlic 
"<;r('at harons" ever canu". Ma^nia ( "arta directed that tlicn- 
aftcr the j^reat Itarons were to \)v sutninoncd individtidUi/ hy 
letter, and the numerous smaller l)arons hi/ a (/cmrdl notice 
read by the sheriffs in the court of each county. Still th<' 
smaller barons failed to assemble; and in the troubles of the 
reign of Henry III, on two or three occasions, tlie sherifis had 
been directed to see to it that each county .st'tit knights to th(^ 




Cloistkrs of Salisbury Cathedral — a shaded walk surrouiidinn the 
inner court ("elose") exeept where the walls of the Cathedral itself form 



fhr 



("f. Plate XLVII. fafiim p. 2SL>. 



gathering. Thus (i rcprcsnifdfirc rlcmmt was infrodund into 
the notional (i.sscnihly. 

Tliis was a natural step for llnfjlishnun. The prinrijdr of 
representative government was no way new to tliem. It had 
taken root long before in lorol institutions. The "four men" 
of each towFiship present in court of hundred or shire spoke 
for all their township. The sworn "jurors" of a sln'rc wlio ga\'e 
testimony in compiling Donu'sday Book under ^^illiam I or 
"presented" offenders for trial under Henry II or did the many 
otluT things the Norman kings called on tliem to do (p. 285), 



ENGLAND : RISE OF PARLIAMENT 



289 



spoke for the whole shire. England was familiar with the prac- 
tice of selecting certain men from a community to speak for the 
community as a whole. The same principle was now applied 
in a larger, central gathering, for all England. 

Then in 1265 the glorious, rebel, Simo7i of Montfort, gave The 

us a real " Parliament." He had been leading the people against Parliaments 

of 1265 
the weak, ill-ruling Henry IH, and had made him prisoner, and and 1295 

now he called a national assembly to settle the government. 




English Family Dinner. — From a fourteenth-century manuscript. 
Note the dogs, the musicians, and the barefooted monk, at whom the 
jester is directing some witticism. Observe, too, that the Norman 
round arch (p. 282, based upon the Roman) has been superseded by the 
■pointed arch of the Gothic style (p. .304). 



This time not only was each shire invited to send two knights, 
but each borough (town) to send two burgesses, to sit with the 
usual lords. Simon wanted the moral support of the nation, 
and so he replaced the ''Great Council of royal vassals'' hy a 
" Parliament representing the whole people. In 1295 after some 
variations, Edward I adopted this model of Simon's; and for 
the first time in history representative government was firmly 
established for a nation. 



2!K) 



Til 10 FKUOAL mm: 



The two 
" Houses 



Half a ('(Mitury latiT, Parliament divided into two Houses. 
At first all sat together. Had tliis continued, the townsmen 
would iieNcr liaxc secured mucli xoice : tliey would liaxc heen 
friiilitened and oxerawed by the n()l)les. The result would ha\e 
l)een ai)out as had if the three estates had come to sit separately, 
as tlu\\ did in France and Spain. With so many distinct orders, 
an ahle kin<,^ could easily have played off one ;if2:ainst the other. 
But En*,dand followed a different course : the i^reat peers, 
lay and spiritual, wlio were summoned hy indixidual letters, 
made a " House of Lords," while the representati\e elements — 
kni^dits of the shire and burgesses, who had been accustomed 
to act top'ther in shire courts — came together, in the national 
assembly, as the " House of Commons." 

For Fuhthek Rkauino. — Green's English Pronh is tlic best f)ne book on 
this period. 



France in 
the feudal 
age 



Growth of 
the king s 
territory 



VI. OTHER LANDS IN TIIK FEIDAL AGE 

In nS7 in France the dcjt^enerate Carolin^dan ' line ^ave way 
1() Hu^di ("a])et, founder of tin* lon<i line of Capriian kin^s. 
Hu^di ("apet found France broken into feudal fragments. 
These, in the next three centuries, he and his descendants 
welded into a new French nation. // tens not the people here 
who fused themselves into a nation in a lon^' strujijgle against 
royal despotism, as in Fngland : // icds the kincjs who mndr ihr 
French nation, in a lon«; struggle against feudal aiiarch\ within 
and foreign conciuest from without. 

Philip A 11(1 u..s't U.S (llSO-122;^) at the opening of his reign 
ruleil diiT(tl>- only one twelfth of modern l*'rance — only one 
sixth as much of it as was then ruled by Henry II of England — 
and held not one seaport. \t the close of his reign Philip ruled 
directly two thirds of h'ranee. The eonsolidatio!i of the realm 
was maiidy com])leted by his grandson, l.onis I .\ (St. Louis), 
and by b)uis' grandson. Philip the Voir ( LJ8:)-I.S14V 

.\nd as the kings won the soil of h'rane*' i)ieee by j)iece, so 
too they added gradually to the royal ])ower. until this Philip 

'Tin- n.inif r'MroIiimi.iii. fr..tii ('.irohi.t. the Latin form 
ap|ilir«l (-1 all (Ik- rulers of ( "liarleinagne's line. 



)f Charles, ig 




CASTILE '^^^''^^^Vfoo N ^ 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 
1154-1453. 



Limit oftht French Kingdom 

Pottettion* of Plantag«n«t Kingt_ 
Land* oftht Frmeh Kings 



SCALE OF MILES 



60 100 200 



400 600 800 



Indep»nd»nt Fuft in Frane* 

Terntory of CharUt ths BiM ^f Burgundy _ 



PRANCE : CONSOLIDATION AND DESPOTISM 291 

the Fair and his successors were the most autocratic sovereigns in Growth of 
Europe in their day. France was divided into districts ruled ^°y^^ power 
by royal officers. Each such appointed officer, as representative 
of the king, held vast power, appointing all inferior officers in 
his district, collecting the royal revenues, and controlHng the 
administration in every detail. These royal officers were chosen 
from men of humble birth — that they might not aspire too much. 

The feudal lords had lost all authority except over their serfs 
and villeins : the small vassals and the townsmen were pro- 
tected now from their rapacity and capricious tyranny. In 
England this escape had come, a little earlier, through the courts, 
the itinerant justices, and the free principles of the common law ; 
and Englishmen grew to have an instinctive reverence for 
courts and law as the protectors of liberty. In France the 
like security came through the despotic power intrusted to their 
officers by the absolute French kings ; and for centuries French- 
men came to trust autocracy as Englishmen trusted law. 

This contrast is shown, in part, in the history of the French The 
institution which most resembled the English Parliament, ^s***®^ 
Philip the Fair completed his reforms by adding respresentatives 
of the towns to the nobles and clergy in the Great Council of 
France. This brought together all three "estates"; and the 
gathering was called the Estates General, to distinguish it from 
smaller gatherings in the separate provinces. The first meet- 
ing in this form was held in 1302, only a few years after the 
" Model Parliament " in England. But Philip and his successors 
used the Estates General only as a convenient taxing machine. 
It never became a governing body, as the English Parliament did. 
It lacked root in local custom ; nor did the French people know 
how to value it. The kings assembled the Estates General 
only when they chose, and easily controlled it. When they 
no longer needed it, the meetings grew rarer, and finally ceased, 
xoithout protest by the people. 

In Germany the Carolingian line died out even sooner than Germany 
in France, and then the princes chose a Saxon duke for King ^," ^^^, 
of the Germans. The second of these Saxon kings was Otto I 



2\)2 



Tin-: FEUDAL AdK 



Expansion 
to the east 



False ambi- 
tion of the 
German 
kings 



Otto and 
the Holy 
Roman 
Empire, 962 



Popes and 
Emperors 



(9!i()-97i^). His first ^^rcal work was to cihI lorcvrr the harharian 
inroads. Tlic nomad Hun^'arians (p. 2()()) once more })rokc 
across tlic eastern hordei" in enoiMnons nunihers. Otto crushed 
tlieni with horril)h> slaughter at the battle of Ix'clifeld. Soon 
after, tlie Hnni^Mrians adoj)ted Christianity and settk'd down in 
ni()d«'rn IIiin»;ary. 

Otto followed up his success. Year bv year, he forced farther 
hack the Slavs from his eastern borders, and established " marks" 
(a name for a border state) alon^ that whole frontier. On the 
extreme southeast was the Eustmark (against the Hungarians), 
to grow into modern Austria, while the Mark of Brandenburg 
on the northeast (against the Slavs) was to grow into modern 
Prussia. Now, too, began a new colonizing movement which 
soon t'xtcndcd Gcrmaui/ from the Klbr to the Oder and carried 
swarms of German settlers among excn the savage Prussians 
and tlie Slavs of the heathen Baltic coast. 

It should have been the work of the German kings to foster 
this defensive colonization along their barbarous eastern })ar(lers, 
and to fuse the Gernuins themsehcs into a true nation. But 
Otto and his successors were drawn from this work, so well 
begun, by greedy dreams of wider em])in'. 

For half a century the Empire in the \Vest had lapsed. Otto 
was tempted to restore it — as a mask for seizing upon Italy. 
That unhappy land had no shadow of union. Saracens from 
Africa contested the south with the Greek Empire and the 
Lombards, and the north was dexastated l)y ferocious wars be- 
tween petty states. Otto in\ aded Ital\ , and in 962 had himself 
consecrated by the p«)pe at Ronu' as " Emperor of the Honums." 

The restored Empire did not include all "Western Euroj)e." 
as Charlemagne's Empire did in its day. l-'ranee was outside 
as were new Christian kingdoms in England, Scandina\ia. 
Poland, and Hungary. .\s a physical power it rested wholly 
on (IrniKin militarx' prowess. And it w;is "the //'>/// Roman 
Empire of the (ierman Peo|)le." It elaimeil to share the 
headshij) of Christendom with the i)apae\. But the relation 
between Euijx'rors and Pojx's was not defined ; tiirrc followed 
three centuries of fatal struggle. 



GERMANY : THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 293 

During these three centuries the history of Germany was bound Ruin to both 
up with that of Italy. This connection brought to Germany ^nJ^ta^y 
somewhat of the culture and art of the ancient world ; but in 
government and industry it spelled ruin. Otto was merely the 
first of a long line of German kings who led splendid German 
armies across the Alps, to melt away in fever beneath the Italian 
sun. German strength was frittered away in foreign squabbles, 
and the chance to make a German nation was lost for nine hun- 
dred years. 

No better were the results to Italy. A German king, however 
much a "Roman" Emperor, could enter Italy only with a Ger- 
man army at his back. The southern land was a conquered 
province, ruled by uncouth northern barbarians. True, at 
last the Popes won, and expelled the Germans ; but only by 
calling in Frenchman and Spaniard, and making Italy for 
centuries more the battle ground and battle prize of Europe. 

In 1254 the last German ruler was driven from Italy. The The period 
Empire ceased to he either "Holy'' or "Roman." Thereafter it JLw"in' 
was wholly German. And even the German kingdom seemed Germany, 
extinct. For twenty years (1254-1273) there was no Emperor, '^54-i273 
and no king, in Germany. This was the period of "Fist- 
law." Germany dissolved into more than 300 petty states — 
"free cities," duchies, marks, counties. (Cf. maps after pp. 
296, 316.) 



CIIAITKK XXXI 



Moham- 
medan cul- 
ture during 
Europe s 
' Dark 
Ages ' 



THE AGE OF THE CRUSADES, 1100 1300 

I. THE CRUSADES 

K?(Hii 1 100 to li^OO A.I)., all Western Europe was deeply moved 
1»\ one eoninion impulse. The Mohanunedans (pp. 253-255) 
still ruled from the Pyrenees to the Ganges. They had utilized 
the old eulture of Persia and of Greeee. Their go\ernments 
were as ijood as the Oriental world had ex'er known. Their 
roads and canals encouraged commerce and hound together 
distant regions. Their magnificent cities were built with a 
jx'culiar and beautiful architecture, characterized l)y the horse- 
shoe arch, the dome, the turret, the graceful minaret, and a rich 
ornament of " arahesfjue." Their manufactures were the finest 
in the world, both for beautiful design and for delicate work- 
manshij). We still speak of "Toledo" blades, and "Morocco" 
leather, while "muslins" and "damasks" recall their superior 
processes at Mosul and Damascus. iMn-ope was soon to owe 
to them these products, with many other things long-forgotten 
or new, — spices, oranges, lemons, rice, sugar cane, dates, 
asparagus, sesame, buckwheat, apricots, waternu'lons. oils, 
perfuiui's, calicoes, satins, the crossbow, the windmill. 

Ill intellectual linrs .\rab suj)eriorit\- was no less marked. 
\\ liilc Eiirojx' had only a few monastic schools to light its 
"I)ark Ages." the .\rabs had great uni\"ersitie^, where philos- 
ophy, tlu'ology. law. rhetoric, were subjects of special study. 
The old (haldean astrology was becoming true astronomy 
in the hands of the .\ral)ians of Spain, and the lieaxcns still 
keej) a thick sprinkling of .\rabic names, like .Ihlrhdidn, \\W\\v 
common terms in our t<'\ts on astronomy {(iziinuth, zrnlth, 
ti(i(/ir) bear like t«'stiinony. I'rom India the .\rabs brought 
the "Arabic" notation, while Euroj)e was still struggling with 

2'J4 



PLATE XLV 




The Court of Lions in the Palace of Alhambra at Granada, Spain 
Typical Moorish architecture. See also after page 254. 



CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES 



295 





A Byzant (Bezant). — A gold coin issued 
by the emperors at Constantinople in 
the Middle Ages. This coin had a wide 
circulation, especially from the eighth to 
the thirteenth centuries, in the coun- 
tries of Western Europe, where, with 
the exception of Spain, these lands had 
no gold currency of their own. 



clumsy Roman numerals. Algebra and alchemy (chemistry) 
are Arabic in origin ; and while Europe still treated disease from 
the viewpoint of an Indian 
"medicine man," the Sara- 
cens had established, on 
Greek foundations, a real 
science of medicine. But in 
the eleventh century, polit- 
ical supremacy in the Mo- 
hammedan world fell to the 
Turks, a barbarous Tartar 
people from beyond the 
Jaxartes. The Arab cul- 
ture survived long enough 
to be transplanted into 
Europe, but in its own home it was doomed to swift decay. 

The Turks were mighty soldiers, and they began a new era 
of Mohammedan conquest. Almost at once the greater part of 

the Greek Empire fell into their 
hands. They overran Asia Minor, 
almost to the gates of Constanti- 
nople. In terror, the Greek Em- 
peror turned to Western Christen- 
dom for aid ; and this appeal was 
the signal for two centuries of war, 
"Cross" against "Crescent." 

This call for aid against the in- 
fidel would have produced little 
effect, however, if Western Europe 
had not had deep grievances of its 
own against the Turk. Pilgrim- 
ages to holy shrines were a leading 
feature of medieval life. Good 
men made them to satisfy religious 
Crusader taking the vow. enthusiasm; evil men, 'to secure 
forgiveness for crime ; sick men, to heal bodily ills. A pilgrimage 
was an act of worship. Chief of all pilgrimages, of course, was 



The 

Turkish 
peril in 
the East 




The Greek 
Empire calls 
on the West 
to save it 
from the 
Turk 



The Turks 
abuse 
Christian 
pilgrims 



2iH) 



THK CRUSADKS, 1 100- llioo 



The 

Crusades 



Importance 
of the 
Crusades 



Intellectual 
results 



Growth of 
Commerce 



that to t\\v land wIutc Christ had Hvcd and to the tomi) where 
Ilis body had l)een hiid. Tlie Saraeens had permitted these pil- 
tirinia^^es ; l)ut the Turks, when they eai)tiircd Jcrusah'ni from 
tlie Arabs, he^^an at onee to perseeute all Christians tliere. 
Thus began those movements of armed pilgrims wliieh we eall 
the Crusades. Kaeli erusa(h'r marelied in })art to sa\'e Eastern 
CIn-istians, partly to axcnge pilgrims from the West; and 
l)artly to make his own pilgrinuige to the holiest of shrines. 
Mingled with these moti\'es, too, was the spirit of ad\t'ntui"e 
and the greed for gain in land or gold. 

From }()!)() to ahmhst l.]00 ihrrr was co)istanf fixjht'inq in thr 
East hdirrcn Christian and Mohammedan. Kuroj)e, which in 
the ninth century had been helj)less against plundering heathen 
bands, had now grown strong enough to pour into Asia for two 
hundred years a ceaseless stream of mailed knights, with count- 
less followers. For almost the first half of that j)eriod the Chris- 
tians did hold all or most of tlu> Holy Land, broken into various 
"Latin" j)rineii)alities, and defended against the re\i\ing Mo- 
hanunedan power by "Orders" of hgliting monks — the 
Templars, the Knights of St. Jolui, and the Teutonic Order. 
But at the end, the Mohannnedans had expelled Em-ope wholly 
from Asia. 

This was mainly because iMU'ope had outgrown the 
crusading movement. The Crusades themselves had created 
a new Euro})e. Trade had grown, and society was no longer 
s(> e\-clusi\'ely made up of fighters. The indirect rtsuJt.s of tlu 
Crusades were \astl\ moi-e imj)ortant tlian the reco\-ery of 
I'ah'stine would liaxc lucii. New energies were awakened; 
new woilds of tiiougiit opened. The intellectual horizon 
widened. Thi erusa.d< r.s hrouijht haeh neir tjains m .seie}iee, art, 
architect lire, m((h'c(d shill : and I'nrope had learned that there was 
nnire to learn. Manx Oriental i)ro(hicts (]). 294) became almost 
uecessarii's of life. Some of them were soon grown or uianu- 
faelured in l-'uroix-. OtluM's, like sj)ices, could not be produced 
there; and, in (•(.nse(iuenee. commerce with distant ])arts of 
.\sia grew enormousl\ . In the absence of fresh meat in winter 
and of our modern root-foods (p. 270), spices became of immense 1 



AND THEIR RESULTS 297 

importance for the table. For a time, Venice and Genoa, 
assisted by their favorable positions, monopoHzed much of the 
new carrying trade ; but all the ports of Western Europe were 
more or less affected. This commercial activity called for 
quicker methods of reckoning, and so Europe adopted the 
Arabic numerals. Money replaced bartrr. Bankers appeared, 
alongside the old Jew money-lenders; and coinage increased. 

All this undermined both the economic and the military Feudalism 
basis of feudalism. Money made it unnecessary for the tenant ^"dermined 
to pay rent in service, and enabled the kings to collect " taxes," 
so as to maintain standing armies. Moreover, the Crusades 
swept away the old feudal nobility directly. Hundreds of 
thousands of barons and knights, squandered their possessions 
in preparing for the expedition, and then left their bones in 
Palestine. The ground was cleared for the rising city democ- 
racies and the new monarchies. 

And these two new forces at first were allies. The "third 
estate" wanted order, and the kings could help secure it. The 
kings wanted money, and the third estate could supply it. 
Kings and towns joined hands to reduce feudalism to a form. 
True, a new nobility grew up — but it had only the honors 
of the old, without its power. 

II. RISE OF THE TOWNS, 1100-1300 

From 500 to 1100 a.d. the three figures in European life had The towns 

been the tonsured priest, the mailed horseman, and the field ^^^ *^® 

, , , , , eudal lord? 

laborer, stunted and bent. In the twelfth century, alongside 

priest, noble, and peasant there stood out a fourth figure — the 

sturdy, resolute, self-confident burr/her. The age of the Crusades 

was also the age of the rise of towns. 

In Italy and southern France, some old Roman towns had Origin of 

lived along, with shrunken population, subject to neighboring ^^^ *°^"^ 

lords. Under the new commercial conditions after 1200, these 

districts became dotted once more with self-governing cities, 

with municipal institutions molded, in part at least, upon those 

brought down from Roman times. Elsewhere the towns were 

mainly new growths — from peasant villages. Most were 



298 



TlIK RISE OF TOWNS 



Town 
charters 
won in two 
centuries of 
revolt 



Town life 
in the 
feudal age 




Siege of a Medieval Town : the summons 
to surrender. — From a sixtcentli-contury 
copper engraviiif;. 



small. W'l-y few had moic than four or five thousand 
people. 

At first cdc/i luhdhiliuif of a (jroir'nuj town remained directly 
dependent upon the town' :i feudal lord. The first ad\ance toward 

frccdoni was to change 
this indixidual depend- 
ence into eolleetive de- 
pendence. The town 
demanded the rijijht to 
" har^^ain collectively " 
(thr()u<i;li its elected 
officers) with the lord 
as to services and dues, 
to he paid hy the whole 
town, not hy individ- 
ual citizens ; and after 
two centuries of revolt 
(1 100-1300), hy stubborn heroism and by wise use of their wealth, 
they had won charters guaranteeing this and greater privileges. 
Town life showed new wants, new comforts, new occupations. 
Tliatched hovels, with dirt floors, gave way to comfortable, 
and even stately, burghers' homes. IniNcrsal misery and 
squalor among the industrial classes were replaced, for a large 
l)art of the ])()j)iilati()ii, by hap])y comfort. There followed a 
lavish expenditure for town halls and cathedrals and for ci\ ic 
feasts and shows. 

Still, tlie medieval lMn-()])eaii city fell far behind the ancient 
RouKin city or the contemporary Arabian city. There were 
no street lights at night, no city water suppl\ , no sewerage, no 
street-cleaning, no |)a\ ing. The necessity of inclosing the town 
within loft\- stone walls crowded it into small sj)ace, so that 
streets were always narrow and dark. Dead animals rotted in 
th<'se streets; pigsties or loose swine obstructed them; and on 
one occasion in the fifteenth century a (J<'rman emperor, warmly 
welcomed in a loyal city, was almost swallowed up, horse and 
rider, in the bottomless filth. Within doors, too. the material 
pr()Sj)erity was not for all. Says Dr. Jessopp, "The sediment 



PLATE XLVI 




Town Hall (Hdtel de Ville) at Oudenarde, Belgium, built in the thir- 
teenth century and still in use. See also page 318- 



AND TOWN LIFE 299 

of the town population was a dense slough of stagnant misery, 
squalor, famine, loathsome disease, and dull despair." 

There was no adequate police system, and street fights were 
constant. At night, no well-to-do citizen stirred abroad with- 
out his armor and his guard of stout apprentice lads ; and he had 
to fortify and guard his house at all times. The citizen, how- 
ever safe from feudal tyranny, lived in bondage to countless 
necessary but annoying town regulations. When "curfew" 
rang, he must "cover his fire" and put out lights — a precau- 
tion against conflagration particularly necessary because of the 
crowded narrow streets, the flimsy houses, and the absence of 
fire companies and of adequate water supply. His clothing, and 
his wife's, must be no richer than that prescribed for their par- 
ticular station. He must serve his turn as "watch" in belfry 
tower, on the walls, or in the streets at night. And in his daily 
labor he must work and buy and sell only according to the 
minute regulations of his gild. 

Each medieval town had its merchant gild and its many craft Craft and 

qilds. These latter were unions of artisans, — weavers, shoe- "merchant 

gilds 
makers, glovers, bow-makers, drapers, tanners, and so on. They 

seem to have grown out of the old Roman gilds. York, a 
small English city of some two or three thousand people, had 
fifty such gilds. Cologne had eighty. Even the homes of a 
gild were grouped together. One street was the street of the 
armorers ; another, of the goldsmiths ; and so on. 

Each craft gild contained three classes of members, — masters, 
journeymen, and apprentices. The master owned a shop, 
— probably part of the house where his family lived, — and 
employed one or more journeymen, besides a band of appren- 
tices. Apprentices were boys or youths bound out by their 
parents for a term of years to learn the trade. They lived in 
the master's house, ate at his table, and he furnished their 
clothing and taught them "all he knew." After six or seven 
years, when his term of service was up, the apprentice became 
a free journeyman, working for wages. For the next few years 
he traveled from place to place, practicing his trade in various 
cities, to see the world and to perfect himself in his "mystery," 



300 



TUK RISK OK TOWNS 



as {\w si'CiTts of the trade were called. If he could save the 
small amount of inoiiey needed, lie finally set up a shop of his 
own and became a nidsfcr. As a master, he continued to work 
with his own hands, living among his dependents with a more or 
less paternal care over them. 

The <;ild was not organized, as the modern trade-union is, 
to regulate the rehitions of workmen to employers. It was a 
brotherhood, containing both workmen and employers. Its 

purposes were (1) to pre- 

^Mi\j^-^^^^^ vent competition (and so 

"^ all who practiced the trade 

,#1jri] M\ were forced to enter the 

"^^' gild and abide by its rules) ; 

(2) to prevent monopoly of 
materials or of opportunity 
by any of its members (and 
so each "brother" had a 
riglit to share in any ])ur- 
cliase by another, and no 
one could sell except at ap- 
pointed times and places) ; 

(3) to keep up the priee 
(which was fixed by the 
gild) ; and (4) to uiointdin. 
a hjijh standard of goods 
(and so the gild punished 
sexcrely all adulterations, 

the mixing of poor wool with good, and the gi\ ing short weight). 
Thus fhf (jiid aimed to proteet both produeer and eonsumer. 

The gild was also a fraternal insurance society. Moreover, 
it had social features, and indeed it often originated as a social 
club for men engaged in the same trade. Throughout tlie 
Middle Ages the gild feasts were the chief excnts in the lives 
of gild iiienibers. 




A Medieval Cooper's Workshop. frf)ni 
an oarl\- sixtooiitli-cciiturx- (MiKraxiiiK. 



For a time it seeme(l that l''urope might be (ioiiu*nat<'d 
by city leagues, like ancient Greece. Thi Uanseaiie Lra(juc 



PLATE XLVII 




Old Street in Rouen. — Present condition. Probably the appearance has 
changed little since the fourteenth century. The Cathedral is visible 
where the street at its further end opens into the square. 



LEARNING AND ART 301 

(eighty North German towns, with "factories" in foreign 
cities over all North Europe) fought at times with the mightiest 
kings, and won. Similar unions of free towns appeared in 
every land. But in Italy, by 1350, nearly every city had fallen 
under the rule of a tyrant; in France they came completely 
under the despotic power of the king ; in Germany they became 
only one more element in the political chaos ; in England they 
never secured the extreme independence which they possessed 
for a time in other lands ; Europe moved on to a national life. 

III. LEARNING AND ART, 1100-1300 

The "Dark Ages" (500 to 1100) saw a gleam of promise Few schools 
in Charlemagne's day, and some remarkable English and Irish "^ the "Dark 
schools flourished just before Charlemagne, and again in the 
day of Alfred. But these were mere points of light in a vast 
gloom. As a whole, for six hundred years the only schools were 
those connected with monasteries and cathedrals ; and these 
aimed only to fit for the duties of the clergy. 

About 1100, Europe began to stir from this intellectual torpor. Rise of the 

Some of the new towns set up trades schools, with instruction ""i^^^sities 

. .... after iioo 

in the language of the people ; and in leading cities, in France, 

Italy, and England, the medieval university appeared. By 

1400, fifty universities dotted Europe, some of them with many 

thousand students. .1 fifth figure came into European life: 

alongside peasant, knight, priest, townsman, there moved now in 

cap and gown the lay student or learned ''doctor," the forerunner 

of the modern ''professional man." 

But the universities did not make good their first promise^. The 

The LTniversitv of Paris, the fii'st medieval universitv, had grown universities 

ruled by 
up about a great teacher, Abelard. Abelard was a fearless tradition, 

seeker after truth. Alone among the scholars of his age, he ^f*^^^ 
dared to call "reason" the test of truth, even in the matter 
of church doctrines. But the church condemned this heresy, 
and forced the rising universities to forswear " reason"' for " author- 
ity."' This stifled all inquiry. When the intellectual rebirth 
of Europe finally came, after those two centuries, it came 
from outside universitv walls. 



reason 



802 



TllK FI<:ri)AL ACrK, ll{)()-i:i(KJ 



The School- 
men 



The method of reasoning used in the iini\ crsltics is called 
srhohisfirism.. It was like the reasoniii^j: we use in geometry, 
— (Ivdurhiq a truth from ^Mven premises or axioms. This 
method ignores ol)ser\ ation and experiment and investigation, 
and has no \alue, 1)\' itself, except in mathematics. It has 
never discox ered a truth in nature or in man. The men of the 
universities (Srhoohuc))) did not use it in mathematics. They 
tried to use it hy turning it upon their own minds, and their 
arguments were mainly (piihhles upon x'crhal distinctions. Much 










,Mi 




■ (PA ' ■ ■?■ ? -"UTTat- ' 



WuKKsuLp Of hiiKNNh DhLAiLNK, ;i <vh-l )r;i I »■(! u"l<l>niitli at Paris in the 
sixteenth century. Drawn and engraved by himself. 



Medieval 
science 



time they spent in |)laying with such (picstions as. How many 
spirits can dance at one time ui)on the jioint of a needle? 

The last of the famous Schoolmen was Duns the Scot, who 
died in 130S. In that da\ there was jio highiT praise for a 
young scholar than to call him "a Duns." Before many years, 
when a new scientific method had come in i])p. '.V2A \\.\ tlie term 
came to he our "dunce." 

A very little "science" crept into Em'opc !>> 1-(H) from the 
Arahs, mainlv in astronomv and chemistry. But the astronomy 



DOMIMONB OF THE HANSA AND 

OF THK TEITOMC OKDER AT 

THKIU (.KKATEST KITENT. 

(About 1400.) 

Banaa toxms are thoven thua:- Qronlngen 
Forrlgn FaotorUa of the LtagxU fhua> Bruje. 
CitU* in vEhlch the League, or aome of it* 
membera, poaaeaaed trading prlvOegea 
thua.- Yarmonth 

TERRrrrmr or the tkitoxic obdek. 




LEARNING AND ART 303 

was mostly astrology (p. 38). And chemistry (alchemy) was 
little more than a search for the "philosopher's stone," which 
should change common metals into gold, or for the "ehxir of 
life," a drink to make man immortal. Both astrologers and 
alchemists mingled their studies with magic incantations and 
were generally belie\'ed to ha\'e sold their souls to the Devil 
in return for forbidden knowledge. 

No doubt there were many men, whose names we have never A fore- 
heard, who were trying through those weary centuries really ^f^J^^g 
to study into the secrets of nature in a scientific way, by experi- science 
ment. The greatest man of this kind before 1300 was Roger 
Bacon, an English Franciscan. While Duns Scotus was admired 
and courted by all the world, Roger Bacon was living in lone- 
liness and po\ erty, noticed only to be persecuted or reviled. 
He spent his life in trying to point out the lacks of the School- 
men's method and to teach true scientific principles. Fourteen 
years he lay in dungeons, for his opinions. When at liberty, 
he worked devotedly, but under heavy handicaps. More than 
once he sought all over Europe for a copy of some book he 
needed — when a modern scholar in like case would need only 
to send a note to the nearest bookseller. He wrote upon 
the possibility of reaching Asia by sailing west into the Atlantic. 
He learned much about explosives, and is said to have invented 
gunpowder. It is believed, too, that he used lenses as a tele- 
scope. Apparently he foresaw the possibility of using steam 
as a motive' power. Certainly he prophesied that in time 
wagons and ships would move "with incredible speed" without 
horses or sails, and also that man would learn to sail the air. 
His "Great Work" was a cyclopedia of the knowledge of his 
time in geography, mathematics, music, and physics. But 
Roger Bacon lived a century too soon for his own good, and 
found no successful disciples. 



Latin, a mongrel Latin, too, was the sole language of the Literature 

university and of learning ; and until 1200, except for the songs ^" *^^, 

of wandering minstrels, it was practically the only language of the people 

any kind of literature. About that time, however, in various *^*®^ ^^°° 



304 



TlIK FKIIDAL AiWl, ll(K)-i;;(K) 



Art in the 

Middle 

Ages 



lands popular poctri/ uf a h'nih order began to api)ear in the lan- 
guage of ereri/dai/ speech: the Song of tlu' ('id in Spanish; the 
lox'c s()n<;s of tlic Troubadours in French and of tlic Minnesingers 
in German; tlie l)i\ine Comedy of Dante in ItaHan ; and, 
toward 1400, the Canterbury Tales of Chaucer in New English, 
with Wyclif's translation of the Bible into the same tongue. 
( 'lassical art was lost, through the Dark Ages, as comi)letely 
as classical learning. Medieval painting existed only in rude 
altar i)ieces, representing stifl' saints and Madonnas, where 
even the flowing draperies could not hide the artist's ignorance 
of how to draw the human body. On a minute scale, to be sure, 
there was some better work. Monks "illuminated" missals with 
tiny brushes in brilliant colors, and sometimes with beauty and 
delicacy. 

Architecture, too, was rude until after 1100. But in the 

twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
turies, the heavy Roman- 
esque style gave way to 
the Gothic, and the world 
gained one of its wonders 
in tlie Gothic cathedral — 
"a religious aspiration in 
stone." (See especially the 
following Plates XLVIII, 
XLIX, and explanations, 
and also Plate XLIV and 
page 1()2.) 

Tlii-s cU'vico meets the "sido-thnist" (.f the roof, iiiul so porniitt<^d the 
nrrhitoct to cut out most of the upper wall into tlu- tall windows horo 
rtliown. Those flyiria buttresses earry that "thrust" to the top of the 
linvrr wall (see any of the Cathedral outs), w!i(>re in turn it is mot. in 
part, hy fiuHd buttresses reaching from the urovuid wall to the top. Those 
lower buttre.s.ses are not in themst«lves beautiful, though they make possi- 
ble other beautiful arranjrements (.see Plates following) ; but the flying 
buttresses themselves are a strikingly U'autiful feature. 









^^^1 



Flying BrTTRF.ssKS from tlu^ upper wall 
of Xorwich Cathedral. 



PT.ATE XLVlll 




Rhkims Cathedhal. — This supivnu'ly Doautiful example ot Gothic archi- 
tortviro (p. ;i()4). dating back almost to the year 1200, was wantonly 
injured by O.'rnian shells in the World War. I'ntil 1100. the rather rude 
architecture of Western Europe was the liinnniusqin , based upon Roman 
remains and marked by the round arch and massive walls. The early 
architects knew no better way to carry the weight of inmiensc stone roofs; 
nor did they dare weaken their gloomy walls even by cutting out large win- 
dows. In the 13th century, that Homanes(|ue style was replaced by a 
new French style called Gothic. The architect, a better engineer now, had 
learned two new devices to carry his roofs. (See opi)osite.) 



PLATE XLIX 




^Z^mZ^Z^^U-^^ Met,.__a beautiful example of Gothic arclnt.,ture, 
sho^^" th. ^^^^*^^^^^h «^"tury. (The piles of chairs are interesting as 
showing the method of seating, even to-day, in European cathedrals 

butTheT-'" ""'^'f^ ^2^^^^-^- T^^ cr^hedrararropen "; 
but the chairs are used only during special services.) 

usinf Zn^n-""^ ^'''.'"^^ is carried by gathering it at certain points, by 

«^^Tf;. runrth' '% ^^^'^ '^'"'^ °" ^^""^^ ^' ^i^hty pillars. The 

pomts. Thus the Gothic architect could use a lighter, more varied more 

foTeii^^lrin l'"^ "^'^ ',^!' "^'^^""^ ornamented curiously with Cce." 
(openings in the stonework) and with moldings. He could also use 

gave'waft"' ^^^T;°^^^ ^^^ "^^^ enough; and the old round ceiling 
^ZdZe \Zfl:r '"''r^r''''' *^' "^^ "' converging arches inter- 
S cedTheT^Indome' ''""' *^" ^^^^ ^^^ heaven-pointing spire, 



PAET VII -AGE OF THE KENAISSANOE, 
1300-1500 



CHAPTER XXXn 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE, 1300-1500 

We left the story of England with the great Edward, who had The 



the wisdom to adopt and perfect the Parliament of the rebel 
Simon. In 1327 Parliament 
deposed the weak second Ed- 
ward, Then the third Edward 
began the Hundred Years' War 
with France (1338-1453). On 
the surface, this war was a 
struggle between kings for 
prestige and territory : but at 
bottom it ivas a commercial 
struggle. Every country, in 
that day, shackled foreign mer- 
chants with absurd restrictions 
and ruinous tolls. England 
wanted to sell her wool freely 
in Flemish towns and to buy 
Bordeaux wines freely in the 
south of France ; and the 
easiest way to get access to 
these markets seemed to be to 
conquer France. 

The war was waged on 



Hundred 
Years' War 
(1338-1453) 




A Bombard. — From a sixteenth- 
century German woodcut. An old 
chronicler tells us that at Crecy the 
English had some small " bom- 
bards, " which, with fire and noise 
like God's thunder, threw little iron 
balls to frighten the horses. These 
first cannons were made by fastening 
bars of iron together with hoops ; 
and the powder was very weak, A 
century later they began to be used 
to batter down castles and city walls 
It was longer still before firearms 
replaced the bow for infantry. 



French soil. The English won 
brilliant victories, overran France repeatedly, ravaging crops, 
burning peasant villages, tui'ning the country into a black- 

305 



France 
ravaged 



:]()(> 



TIII<: RKXAISSANCFO ACM^ 1300-ir,()f) 



Battle of 
Crecy, 1346 



The Black 
Death 



And the 
decay of 
serfdom in 
England 



ciu'd desert in the usual fasliion of warfare in those ehivalrous 
(hiys, and hrin^'ing horui* much plunder — rf)l)es, furs, feather 
Ix'ds, kitclien utensils, sonic rich j)late, and some coin from the 
ransom of "nohle" i)ris()ners. Tlie wliole century of horrible 
and meaningless slaughter had just one gleam of promise for the 
future world. This was given l)y the hattle of Oeey. An F^ng- 
glish army was trapped apparently by five times their num- 
ber. Hut the English yeomen — men of the six-foot bow and 
yard-long shafts feathered fiom gray-goose wings — coolly 
fac<(l the ponderous mass of French knights, repulsed charge 
aft CI- charge of that gallantest chivalry of Europe, and won 
back for the world ihc long-lost e(|uality of tlie footman with 
the feudal horseman in war (134()), 

Vov a time, toward 1400, the war languished l)ecause pesti- 
lence was slaying men faster than steel could. The Black 
Dcatli, most famous of famous plagues, had })een devastating 
the continent for years, moving west from Asia. At least a 
third of the population of Europe was carried oif by it. Then, 
in the year after Crecy, the returned victors brought it to Eng- 
land, where, almost at a blow, it swept away half the nation. 

This loss fell most heavily of course upon the working classes, 
l)Ut it hcljx'd those left ali\-e to rise out of serfdom, — a move- 
ment already well under way there. The lack of labor doul)led 
wages, too, and so brought in a higher standard of living. 

True, PiiiTiaiiicnl tried, in the interest of the landlords, to 
keep down the labors by foohsh and tyraimical laws, — for- 
bidding them to lea\(' the ])arish \\h< re they lived or to take 
more wages than h;id Ix'cn customai-y in tlie i)ast, and ordering 
them under cruel jXMialties to s<*rve any one who oil'ered them 
such wages. There were many indi\ idual cases, too, of bitter 
tyranny, where some lord, by legal trickci-y or by outright 
violence, fiU'ced half-freed \illcins back into serfdom. Thus 
among the jx-asants there was long smoldering a fierce and just 
discontent . 

.\n(>ther set of causes fanned tliis discontent into flame. The 
huge wealth of the church and the worldliness of the greater 
clergy were becoming a conunon scandal. Excn the gentle 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE 307 

Chaucer (p. 304), court poet though he was, wrote in keen raillery 
of these faults. More serious and less happy men could not 
dismiss them with a jest. The priest, John Wyclif, a famous WycUf and 
lecturer at the University of Oxford, preached vigorously against 
such abuses, and finally attacked even some central teachings 
of the church. He denied the doctrine of transubstantiation,^ 
and insisted that even ignorant men might know the will of God, 
through the Bible, without priestly intervention. Accord- 
ingly, with his companions, he made the first complete transla- 
tion of the Bible into English ; and his disciples wrote out many 
copies (printing was still a century in the future) and distrib- 
uted them throughout the land. 

These disciples called themselves "poor preachers." Their John 
enemies called them "Lollards" (babblers). Some of them 
exaggerated their master's teachings against wealth, and called 
for the abolition of all rank and property. John Ball, one of 
these "mad preachers," attacked the privileges of the gentry in 
rude rhymes that rang through England from shore to shore, — 

"When Adam delved and Eve span, 
Who was then the gentleman?" 

''This priest," says Froissart, a contemporary chronicler, "used often- 
times to go and preach when the people in the villages were coming out 
from mass ; and he would make them gather about him, and would say 
thus : 'Good people, things go not well in England, nor will, till every- 
thing be in common and there no more be villeins and gentlemen. By 
what right are they whom we call lords greater folk than we? We be all 
come from one father and one mother, Adam and Eve, . . . but they 
are clothed in velvet and are warm in their furs, while we shiver in rags ; 
they have wine, and spices, and fair bread ; and we, oat cake and straw, 
and water to drink ; they dwell in fine houses, and we have the pain and 
travail, the rain and the wind in the fields. From our labor they keep 
their state. Yet we are their bondmen; and unless we serve them 
readily, we are beaten.' And so the people would murmur one with 
the other in the fields, and in the ways as they met together, affirming 
that John Ball spoke truth." 

In 1377 Edward's grandson, Richard II, came to the throne 

as a mere boy; and, while the government was in confusion, 

1 That at the Mass the bread and wine were changed miraculously 
into the very flesh and blood of Christ. 



308 



THE RENAISSANCE A(IE, i:i()0-1500 



The 
Peasant 

Rising 
of 1381 



1111(1 England in this soothing discontont, Parlianiont passod a 
hoavy poll tax, l)oaring unfairly upon tho poor. This match 
sot the realm ablaze — in the " Peasant Rising of 1381." With 
amazing suddenness, from all sides, the peasants, rudely armed, 
marched upon London ; and in a few days the king and kingdom 
were in their hands. 

The special demand of the peasantry was that all labor-rents 
should be changed into fixed money rents. They sacked some 
castles and manor houses, destroying the "manor rolls" (the 
written evidence of services due on the estate) ; and they put to 
death a few nobles and their lawyer tools. Women and children 



Wat 

the Tyler 




An English Carriage of the Fourteenth C'entiry. — After Jussorand's 
English Wayfaring Life; from a fourteenth-rentury psalter. This 
rarriane is represented as drawn by five horses tandem, driven l»y two 
postilions. Such a carriage was a princely luxury, equaling in value a 
herd of from four hundred to sixteen hundred oxen. 

were nowhere injured, and there was no attempt at general 
pillage and massacre, such as usually go with servile insurrec- 
tions in other lands. The revoli inis marked hi/ the moderation 
of mm irho had a. reasonable program of reform. 

VuhiippWy the peasants lacked organization. Their cliief 
le;i(l<T, n (tf thi Ti/lcr, was murdered treMclierously, in a coti- 

foronci "under a Hag of truce" as wo would say. "Kill!" 

shouted Wat's followers; "they have nuirdorod our captain!" 
But the \()ung Kieliard rode forward fearlessly to their front. 
" Wliat need ye, my masters ! " lie called ; ** I am your king and 
captain." "We will that you free us forever," shouted the 
peasant army, "us and our land; and that we be noxcr more 
named serfs." "1 grant it," rei)lied tlio boy; and l)y such 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE 309 

pledges and by promise of free pardon he persuaded them to go 
home. For days a force of thirty clerks was kept busy writing 
out brief charters containing the king's promises. 

But when the peasants had scattered to their villages, bear- The upper- 
ing to each one a copy of the king's treacherous charter, the tj.g^^jjgj. 
property classes rallied and took a bloody vengeance. Parlia- and revenge 
ment declared, indeed, that Richard's promise was void, because 
he could not give away the gentry's property — the services 
due them — without their consent. Richard caught gladly at 
this excuse. Quite willing to dishonor his word to mere villeins, 
he marched triumphantly through England at the head of forty 
thousand men, stamping out all hope of another rising by ruth- 
less execution of old leaders. Seven thousand men were put 
to death in cold blood. The men of Essex met him with copies 
of his charters, declaring that they were free Englishmen. 
"Villeins you were," answered Richard, "and villeins you are. 
In bondage you shall abide ; and not your old bondage, but a 
worse." None the less, the emancipation began again soon 
with fresh force; and, hy 1450, villeinage had passed away in 
England. 

The growth of Parliament during the Hundred Years' War Growth of 
was almost as important as the rise of the peasants out of bond- P^^^- 
age. Constant war made it necessary for Edward III and power 
his successors to ask for many grants of money. Parliament 
supplied the king generously ; but it took advantage of his needs 
to secure new powers. 

(1) It established the principle that "redress of grievances" 
must precede a "grant of supply" and at last transformed its 
"petitions" for such redress into "bills." (2) In the closing 
years of Edward III the Good Parliament (1376) "impeached" 
and removed his ministers, using the forms that have been com- 
mon in impeachments ever since in English-speaking countries. 
And (3) when Richard II tried to overawe Parliament with his 
soldiery, England rose against him, and the Parliament of 1399 
deposed him, electing a cousin (Henry of Lancaster) in his place. 
(4) In the first quarter of the fifteenth century, under the Lan- 



310 



THK KKXAISSAXCE AGE, 1300-1500 



castrian Henrys (IV, V, \'I), the House of Commons made good 
its claims that all inoncN Kills must originate with it, and 
(5) secured the right to judge of the election of its own members. 
Liberties of (G) Parliament repeatedly compelled the king to dismiss his 
Englishmen „ii,iij^ters and appoint new ones satisfactory to it, and (7) sev- 
eral times fixed the succession to the throne. (S) Freedom of 
speech in Parliament and freedom from arrest, except l)y the 
order of Parliament itself, became recognized privileges of all 
members. 

Thus under the Lancastrians there was established in the 
breasts of the English middle classes a proud consciousness of 




Thk I'aki.i a.mkxt of \.i99, which dcposi-d Hi<h;ii{i II. — From a coiiteni- 
porars iiianuscri|)t. The faces arc pmhaMy portraits. 

English liberty as a ])recious inheritance. With right they 
belie\-ed it superior to that possessed by any other people of the 
time. Wrote Sir .lohn Eorteseue, ( liirf Justice under Henr\ \'l. 
in his /// I^raisr of ihi Ijnrs of l\)i<jl(ui<l, for the instruction of 
Henry's son : 

"A kiii^; of Kii^hmd at his plea.><ure cannot make any alteration in the 
laws of the hind without the con.^ent of his suhjects, nor burden them 
again.st their wills with stranpe impositions. . . . Rejoice, therefore, 
my p)0(l Prince, that such is the law of the kingdom you are to inherit, 



ENGLAND AND FRANCE 



311 




because it will afford both to you and to your subjects the greatest 
security and satisfaction. . . . [The king] is appointed to protect his 
subjects in their lives, properties, and laws. For this end he has the 
delegation of power from the people, and he has no just claims to any other 
power." 

Then came the ruinous Wars of the Roses in England. This 
civil war was not merely a struggle for power between rival lords 
as Shakspere pictures it : in large measure, it was the final 
battle between the old feudal 
spirit, strong in the north of 
England, and the towns, strong 
in the south. The towns won. 
The remnants of the old no- 
bility were swept away in 
battle or by the headsman's 
ax. But the middle classes 
were not yet ready to grasp 
the government, and the fruits 
of victory fell for a time to the 
new Tudor monarchs, Henry VII 
and Henry VIII. These rulers 

were more absolute than any preceding English kings 
entered the modern period under a "New Monarchy." 

Still these Tudors were not *' divine-right" monarchs ; and 
they were shrewd enough to cloak their power under the old 
constitutional forms — and so did not challenge popular op- 
position. True they called Parliament rarely — and only to 
use it as a tool. But the occasional meetings, and the waj- in 
which the kings seemed to rule through it, saved the forms of 
constitutional government. At a later time, life was again 
breathed into those forms. Then it became plain that, in 
crushing the feudal forces, the New Monarchy had paved the 
way for a parliamentary government more complete than men 
had dreamed of in earlier times. 



Guy's Tower, — the Keep of War- 
wick Castle : the Earl of Warwick 
was a prominent leader in the 
Wars of the Roses. Read Bulwer's 
Last of the Barons. 



England 



The Wars 
of the 
Roses, 
1454-1471 



The " New 
Monarchy " 
of the 
Tudors 



The forms 
of free 
government 
saved 



France came out of the Hundred Years' War, after unspeakable 
suffering among the poor and after vast destruction of property, 



312 



Till-: RKXAISSAXCK A(IK, 1301) i:,()() 



French 
monarchy 
strength- 
ened 



with tcn-itory consolidjitrd, with a new j) 
' ■ ' ' ■ '' tliat h ' ' 



...itriotism l)in(ling her 
ad l)lossoined in Joan of 



j)('()j)h' into nwv (a j)atriotisin ni.n ii.m iini.->:^uiin;»i m .nnm oi 
Arc, tlic peasant uirl hhcrator of her country), and with her 
kin<j:s stronger than c\(M-. Her industrious j)e 

tlie hist ti!ne, aniaz(><l Kurope l)y tlieir raj)i( 

prosperity in a wasted hmd. Loui.s XI (H^il-HS.S) kept a 
•fHei(>nt stancHng army, witli a train of artillery that 



Her industrious jx-asantry, not for 
restoration of 



small hut cmeuwit standmg army, with a tram ot artillery that 
could easily hatter the castle of any feudal rehel ahout his ears. 
His reign left France the most powerful single state in Europe. 

FoK FruTHKU Rkadin(;. — Green's Etiyiish People contiimes to be 
th(^ most desirable general narrative. Lanier's The Boy' a Froissart 
gives an entertaining contemporary story of the period. Jessopp's 
Coming of (he Friars pictures the desolation of the Black Death. 
Clemens' ("Mark Twain's") Joan uj Arc is history in a novel's form. 



PLATE L 



■^ ^« 




^HHm ^^^ 


{^^^■*w*:^yiH 


*'■&.._ ,:/r1fw^' 







Joan of Arc relieving Orleans from the besieging English. This unschooled 
French peasant girl heard divine "voices," she was persuaded, calling 
her to free her country from the English invader. How she did this 
may best be read in Mark Twain's Joan of Arc. This painting portrays 
an early victory which roused the French people from their despair to 
follow the "Holy Maid of Orleans." Finally, when her work was really 
done, Joan fell into English hands and was burned as a witch, after a 
trial marked by her gentle firmness and purity and heroic endurance. 
History places her foremost among French heroes; and recently (May, 
1920) she was canonized by Pope Benedict XV. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 
OTHER STATES FROM 1300 TO 1500 

Meantime the papacy was losing power. AV)oiit 1300, both 
England and France challenged the papal overlordship in mat- 
ters of government. (Neither questioned the pope's authority in 
religious matters.) The kings needed more revenue, and were try- 
ing to introduce systems of national taxation — in place of the 
outgrow^n feudal revenues. The clergy had been exempt from 
feudal services ; but they owned so much of the wealth of the 
two countries that the kings insisted upon their paying their 
share of the new taxes. Pope Boniface VIII (1296) issued a bull 
forbidding any prince to impose taxes on the clergy without 
papal consent, and threatening excommunication against all 
clergy who paid. 

But when the English clergy, trusting in this decree, refused The conflict 
to pay taxes, Edward I outlawed them until they submitted. ^^ ^^^^^ 
In France Philip the Fair (p. 290) forbade any payment to the 
pope, and arrested the papal legate. Boniface threatened 
to depose the king. A few days later, a company of French 
soldiers made Boniface prisoner ; and the chagrin of the old 
man at the insult probably hastened his death (1303). 

Philip then secured the election of a French pope, who removed •• The 

the papal capital from Rome to A^^gnon, in southern France. Babylonian 
TT 1 -IP / X Captivity 

Here the popes remamed for seventy years (1309-1377), in 

"the Babylonian Captivity of the church." Of course the 
papacy lost public respect. It was no longer an impartial umpire. 
PoHtically it had sunk into a mere tool of the French kings, and 
the enemies of France could not be expected to show it rever- 
ence. In Italy, too, the Papal States themselves fell into 
anarchy, and there was danger that the popes might lose that 
principality. 

313 



314 



'nil-: KKXAISSAXCK A(i 



i;>i).) i.'/M) 



Rival 
" popes 



The 

Lollard 

heresy 



The Hussite 
heresy 



The Council 
of Con- 
stance, 1414 



III lo77, to sjiAi' tin' papal tiMiitory, (iic^ory XI visited 
Koine. This jict ln-oii^ht on a ^n'cater disaster even than the 
exile itself, (ire^ory died while at Rome. The cardinals were 
()l)Ii^('(l at onee to choose a successor. They were Frenchmen 
(as all hi^h chnrch offices had been ^iNen to Frenchmen during 
the scandal of the Captivity); hut e\en French cardinals did 
not dare (lisrei:;ar(l the savajjje demands of the people of Rome 
for an Italian {)o])e, and so they chose I rhan VI. Urban estab- 
lished himself in tlu> old ])ai)al seat at Rome ; but, a few months 
later, the cardinals assend)led again, declared that the choice 
of Urban was void because made under compulsion, and elected 
a French pope, Clement VII, who promptly returned to Avignon. 

Urban and Clement excommimicated each other, each de\'ot- 
ing to the (l(>\il all the supporters of the other. Which pope 
should good Christians obey? The answ(>r was determined 
mainly by political considerations. France ob(>ved Clement; 
England and (Jeiinany obeyed Urban. 

This condition encouraged other disunion mo\(>ments. 
The ]\\i/rllf movnnrni in England (p. 307) took place toward 
the close of th(^ (^xile at A\ ignon. Th(^ clun'ch dcelan^d \Vyclif 
a heretic; i)Ut he was protected during liis life l>y one of King 
Edward's sons. Soon after Wyclif's death, liowexcr, the Lan- 
castrian monarchs began to i)ersecute his followers. In MOl. 
for th( first time, an Englishman was burned for luM'esy, and the 
Lollards finally disappeared. But meantime, the seeds of the 
heresy had bciMi scattered in a distant part of Euroj)e. Richard 
II of Fngland married a ))rincess of BoluMuia, an<l some of her 
attendants ctirrnd f/ir iidrh'nnjs of W'l/cllf fo flic lio/u tnian I'ninr- 
s'liji of Vrdijuc. .\bout 1 100, .Johti lilts, ;i j)rofessor at Prague, be- 
came a leader in a riidieal " reform " nuieh after Wyclif's example, 
and the ni()\<ineiit spi'ead r;ij)idl.\ over niueh of Holienu'a. 

Crreat afid good men excry where, es])ecially in the powerful 
uni\ crsities, began now to call for a (icneral Council as the only 
means to restore iniity of church go\<MMunent and doctrine ; and 
finally one of the j)oj)(>s called the Council of Constance (1414). 
Fi\e thousand delegates were ])resent. repn^senting all Chris- 
tendom. With recesses, the Council sat for four years. It 



THE CHURCH AND THE PAPACY 315 

induced one pope to resign his office, and it deposed the other 
claimants. Then it restored unity by electing a new pope, 
Martin V, to rule from Rome. 

Next the Council turned its attention to restoring church 
doctrine. John Hus was present, under a "safe conduct" 
from the Emperor. His teachings were declared heresy ; but 
neither persuasion nor threats could move him to recant. " It 
is better for me to die," he said, "than to fall into the hands 
of the Lord by deserting the truth." Despite the Emperor's 
solemn pledge for his safety, Hus was burned at the stake, 
and his ashes were scattered in the Rhine (1415). Then Wyclif's 
doctrines, too, were condemned ; and, to make thorough work, 
his ashes w^ere disinterred from their resting place and scattered 
on the river Swift. 

These vigorous measures did not wholly succeed. Hus The last 
became a national hero to Bohemia. That country rose in the Middle 
arms against the church. A crusade was preached against Ages 
the heretics, and years of cruel war followed ; but some survivals 
of Hussite teachings lasted on into the period of the Protestant 
Revolt a century later. The papacy never regained its earlier 
authority over kings. Nicholas V (1447) showed himself a 
learned scholar, eager to advance learning, as well as a pure 
and gentle man. Pius H (1455) strove to arouse a new crusade 
against the Turks, who had at last captured Constantinople ; 
but his complete failure proved (in his own words) that Europe 
" looked on pope and emperor alike as names in a story." Some 
of the succeeding popes, like the notorious Borgia (Alexander VI, 
1492-1503), were busied mainly as Italian princes, building 
up their temporal principality by intrigue and craft such as 
was common at that day in Italian politics. 

The " Holy Roman Empire," it has been explained, had come Germany 
to mean merely Germany. The anarchy of the "Fist-law" Hapsburgs 
period was checked in 1273 by the election of Rudolph of Haps- 
burg as Emperor. Rudolph was a petty count of a rude district 
in the Alps ("Hawks' nest"), and the princes had chosen him 



316 TUK KEXAISSAN'CE ACIK. 13()n-i:)()() 

Holicinia, indeed, refused to reeo^niize liiiii as Kiiiperor. Ru- 
d<)l{)h attacked Bohemia, and seized from it the dueliy of Aus- 
tria, whicli until recently has remained the chief seat of the 
Hapshurgs. In other ways he showed the now-familiar Haps- 
burg zeal to widen his personal domain. "Sit firm on Thy 
throne, O Lord," prayed one bishop, "or the Count of Hapsburg 
will shove Thee ofl'." 

After Rudolph's death, tlie ])rinces of the Empire (the Elec- 
toral College) passed the throne from family to family — until, 
in 1438, after a long line of Bohemian rulers, the imperial dig- 
nity came back to thc^ Hapsburgs by the election of Albert, 
Duke of Austria. Erom this time, so long as the title endured, 
fh< ''Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" 2ras of ihc llousr of 
Aiustria, and election became a form only. 

Maximilian I (1493-1519), the one romantic hero of the 
Hapsbiu'g race, made a noble effort to bring Germany abreast 
of England and France. In the end he failed utterly, and 
Germany entered the Modern Af/e a loose eonfederacy of majiy 
])(fty sovereifin statrs (jronped (d)(>nf AuMria. 

Tlie Mohammedan iinasion of 711 (]). l2r)4\ separated the 
development of S/xiin from that of tlie rest of Europe. Eor 
centuries, "Africa began at tlie Pyrenees." 

The wa\-e of Moorish invasion, howexcr, left uneontiuered 
a few resolute Christian chiefs in the remote fastnesses of the 
northwestern mountains, and in these districts several little 
Christian j)rincipalities began the long task of winning back their 
land, crag by crag and stream by stream. This they accom- 
plished in eight hundred years of war, — a war at once j)atriotic 
and religious, Sj)aniard against .\frican, and (liristian against 
Infidel. The long struggle left tlie Si)anish race i)roud, brave, 
warlike, unfitted for industrial ei\ ilizatioii, intensely j^atriotic, 
and blindly devoted to the eiiurch. 

During the eight centuries of conflict, the Christian states 
spread gradually to the south and east, — waxing, fusing, 
splitting up into new states, unitinir in kaleidoscopic combina- 



PLA'l E LI 




""huhch of St. Soi'HIa, Coxstaxtinoi'lk, luiilt l)y .lustiiiian upon tlie site 
of an earlier church of the same name by Constantine. The whole 
interior is lined with costly, many-colored marbles. The interior view 
shows only a part of the vast dome, with einhteen of the forty windows 
which run about its circumference of some :i4() feet. In IJ.j.i the building 
became a Mohammedan mos(pie (p. :i\7). In lOlU it became again a 
Christian temple. (The pointed minarets adjoining are SaraciMiic.) 



• SPAIN — THE TURKS 317 

formed the three countries, Portugal, Aragon, and Castile. 
Nearly a century later, the marriage of Isabella of Castile and 
Ferdinand of Aragon united the two larger states, and in 1492 
their combined power captured Granada, the last Moorish 
stronghold. In the year that Columbus discovered America 
under Spanish auspices, Spain at home achieved national union 
and national independence. During the next two reigns, the 
Spanish monarch}/, financed by the treasures of Mexico and Peru, 
became the most absolute in Europe. 

While the civilized Mohammedan Moors w^ere losing Spain, The Turks 
barbarous Mohammedan Turks were (laining southeaster?!, Europe. ^^^ s^^ 
They established themselves on the European side of the Helles- Europe 
pont first in 1346. Constantinople held out for a century more, 
a Christian island encompassed by seas of Mohammedanism. 
But at Kossom (1389), the Turks completed the overthrow of 
the Serbs, and a few years later a crushing defeat was inflicted 
upon the Hungarians and Poles. Then, in 1453, Mahomet the 
Conqueror entered Constantinople through the breach where the 
heroic Constantine Palaeologus, last of the Greek emperors, 
died sword in hand. 

The Turks, incapable of civilization, always remained a hostile 
army encamped among subject Christian populations, whom 
their rule blighted. After 1453, Constantinople was the capital 
of their empire. That empire continued to expand for a century 
more (until about 1550), and for a time it seemed as though 
nothing could save Western Europe. Venice on sea, and Hun- 
gary by land, were long the two chief outposts of Christendom., 
and, almost unaided, they kept up ceaseless warfare to check the 
Mohammedan invaders. For a time, Hungary was conquered, 
and then Austria became the bulwark for Western Europe. 

The Netherlands (Low Countries) did not form an independent 
state in the Middle Ages. They were made up of a group of 
provinces, part of them fiefs of the Empire, part of them French 
fiefs. The southern portion has become modern Belgium ; the 
northern part, modern Holland. The land is a low, level tract, 
and in the Middle Ages it was more densely packed with teeming 



318 



TIIK liKXAISSAXCM M\K, i:i();)-l .">()() 



citii's tluin ;iny other part of iMiropc 'I'lu' inliahitants were 

a sturdy, iiulcixiidctit, slow, industrious, persistent people. 

Ghent claimed ei*,dity thousand citizens ahle to hear arms, 

while ^'J)^es is said to haxc emj)lo\('d two hundred thousand 

people in tlie weaxin^^ of cloth. Wealth so abounded that 

the "eounts" of this little district excelled most of the kind's 

of Europe in magnifieence. 

Trade and Many of the eities, like Rotterc/a///. and Amster^/rn//, were 

manufac- |j,jjj^ ^j,^ |.,,,,j ^yrested from the sea hv dikes, and thev took 
tures 





mMiiHiHiii^^lilt 



^^ 



Hall of thk Ci-otiimak. i ^ tiiiishod, 

VMA; di'sfroycd 1)\ tlit' tiiTinaii.- in tin- W.-ild War. 

naturally to eonnnerce. In their markets, the nn^rchants from 
Italy and the south of Kuro])e exchanged wares with the Hansa 
merchants of the Baltic. .Vnd the Netherland towns were 
worksliops even more than they W(Te trading r<M)ms. " Nothing 
reached their shores," says one historian, "hut reeeix'cd a more 
perfect finish: what was coarse and almost worthless, Ix'came 
transmuted into something heautiful and good." Matthew- 
Paris, a thirteenth-centurx Knglish chronicler, exclaimed that 
"the whole wurld was clothed in Knglish wool uimnijdciurrd in 
Fldndcr.s."' 



PLATE TJT 




ll.HSTUATIoN KKOM \ I'll ill Mil < KMIUY M WISCKl IT, showillH ill tllC 

forcjrrouiul Maxiniili.ui of Austria, Mary of BurKundy, and their son 
Philip (p. 320). The original is in colors- 



THE "LOW COUNTRIES" 319 

During the Hundred Years' War, the dukes of Burgundy 
became masters of Flanders. When Louis XI of France (p. 312) 
seized the rest of Burgundy from its last duke, Charles the 
Bold, the Flemish towns wisely chose to remain faithful to Mary, 
the daughter of Charles. Mary married the young Maximilian 
of Hapsburg (p. 316), and the Netherlands yassed to the House of 
Austria. 

The rise of "monarchic states" is the political change that The " New 
marks the close of the Middle Ages. At the moment it seemed .^g » jj^ ' 
a disaster to many great and good men, like the Italian Dante, Europe 
who had their minds fixed on the old ideal of a united Christen- 
dom. But, since the days of the old Roman empire, Europe 
had never known a true union. The real mission of each of the 
new monarchies, whether the monarchs saw it yet or not, ivas to 
weld all the classes within its land into one people with a common 
patriotism. 

We have noted the rise of new powerful monarchies in Eng- 
land, France, Spain, and Austria. Like governments had ap- 
peared in Hungary, Bohemia, Sweden, Denmark, and Poland. 
Two small lands, Switzerland and the Netherlands, were loosely 
connected with the Austrian Hapsburg monarchy. Two great 
lands had no part in the movement : until 1250, Germany France and 
and Italy had been the center of interest ; but their claim for ^^^ ^^ 
universal rule had left them broken in fragments. Not for 
centuries were they to reach this new form of united monarchic 
government. Leadership, therefore, passed from them to France, 
Spain, a7id England, — the three countries in which the new 
movement was most advanced. In Italy, soon after 1250 
the city republics (p. 300) fell under the rule of "tyrants"; 
and by 1450 the many petty divisions had been brought under 
one or another of "Five Great States " — the Kingdom of Sicily, 
the Papal States, Milan, Florence, and Venice. Then France 
and Spain waged wars for the mastery of these; and Spain 
was left mistress of Sicily and Naples. 

Now swift steps brought the Hapsburg power withi^i sight of a 
world-monarchy. Ferdinand of Aragon had married one daugh- 



320 



TIIK KKN'AISSAXCK ACM-], liiOO-loOO 



Failure of 
Charles 



tcr to the yoim;;' I'lii^lisli j)riiic(' soon to Ik'coiiic Henry \ 111, 
and another to Philip of Haj)s!)ur^% son of the Emperor Maxi- 
niiHan and Mary of Bur«,aindy (p. 319). Fr(3m this last mar- 
r'vd^c, in 1. ')()(), was l)()rn a child, ('luirles. Philip had been 
ruler of the Netherlands throu^di his mother, Mary; and his 
early death left those rich districts to Charles while yet ahoy. 
In 151() Charles also succeeded his ^q-andfather, Ferdinand, as 
kin^ of Sicily and Naples and as king of Sj)ain, with the gold-pro- 
ducing realms in America that had just hecome Spain's. Three 
years later he succeeded his other grandfather, Maximilian, 
as the hereditary ruler of Austria, with its many dependent 
provinces. Then, still a hoy of nineteen, Charles became a 
candidate for the title of Emperor, which ^Maximilian's death 
had left vacant ; and his wealth (or that of his Flemish mer- 
chants) enabled him to win against his rivals Francis of France 
and Henry VHI of England. 

TI1H.S Charles I of Spain, at twfut}/, became also Charles C, 
Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and for a while it seemed 
possible that he might more than restore the empire of the 
first great Charles (Charlemagne). Compact France, at first, 
wais his only obstacle; and no time was lost by Charles and 
the French Francis I in joining battle. Tlie battle of Pavia 
left Francis a captive, and France apparently at the Hapsburg's 
feet. But just then (1520) (tti ohseiirc monk in (iermnnii burned 
a papal l)ull and started a moxcment which sj)lit Germany and 
Europe at once into opposing camps, and rendered forever vain 
tin drrafii of nstorinfi the old imperial ntiifi/ of Chrisfcfidom. 
When a worM union comes, we see now. it is to come as a union 
of free proples. 

We must turn l)aek once more to note the intellectual 
change that ended tlie Michlle .\ges and prepared the way for 
that revolt within the church. 







\ 


J 




















Possessions of the 
Venetians 

House of Austria 
Swedish PostesHnne 




\ "^^frJaiVNVHa'', 


\* 1 


L 


/j^^.-r 


\ 

.--V 


\ 


\ 


CD- 
P 


V 




M 


s 




CHAPTER XXXIV 
THE RENAISSANCE, 1300-1500 

The five hundred years from 800 to 1300 make up the Age The periods 

of FeudaHsm. The first three centuries (800-1100) were a within the 

feudal age 
continuation of the "Dark Ages" of the barbarian invasion, 

after the brief interruption by Charlemagne. In those gloomy 

three hundred years we noted the grim feudal system at its (i) The 

height, the medieval church, serf labor, the destructive strife ^^ ^^^ 

between empire and papacy, and, at the close, the Norman 

conquest of England. 

The year 1100 was the threshold over which we passed from (2) The 
those centuries of gloom to two centuries of fruitful progress. 
That Age of the Crusades saw also the rise of towns, of univer- 
sities, of popular literatures, of Gothic architecture in cathe- 
drals and town halls, of the grow^th of France out of feudal 
fragments into one kingdom, and of the rise of courts and of 
Parliament in England. 

The year 1300 introduced two centuries of still more rapid The age of 
advance. The period 1300-1520 ice call the Age of the Reiiais- aissam!e~ 
sance, because those centuries are marked by a " rebirth" of a long- 
forgotten way of looking at life. That old way had expressed 
itself in the art and literature of the ancient Greeks. Accord- 
ingly, the men of the new age were passionately enthusiastic 
over all remains of the old classical period. The fundamental 
characteristic of the Renaissance, however, was not its devotion 
to the past, but its joyous self-trust in the present. The men Relation to 

of the Renaissance cared for the ancient culture because thev Ancient " 

culture 
found there what they themselves thought and felt. 

Between those classical times and the fourteenth century The Ren- 
there had intervened centuries of very difl^erent life — which ^^^^"^^^^ 

and the 

we have been studying. Those "Middle Ages" had three marks feudal age 
on the intellectual side. (1) Ignorance was general; and 

321 



322 TIIK KM^XAISSANCE 

vwn tlu' Irariu'd followed slavishly in tlie footsteps of some 
intelleetual master. (2) INIan as an indiridn.dl eountefl for 
little: in all liis actixities he was part of some <i;il(l or order or 
corporation. (;^) Interest in the future life was so intense that 
many good men neglected the present life. Heauty in nature 
was little regarded, or regarded as a temj)tati()n of the devil. 

The Roiai.s'sancc changed all this. (1) For hlind obedience 
to authority, it substituted the free incjuiring way in which the 
Ancients had looked at things. (2) Men (h'xcloped new self- 
reliance and self-confidence, and a fresh and lively originality. 
And (3) they awoke to delight in flower and sky and mountain, 
in the beauty of the human body, in all the pleasures of the 
natural world. 

This transformation — one of the two or three most wonder- 
ful changes in all history — began first in Italy. It was well 
over in that land by 1550; while it hardly })egan in England un- 
til 1500, and tliere it lasted through Shakspere's age, to about 
1()00. 

Italy was the natural home for a re\i\ al in literature and art. 
Vergil had been read by a few Italian scholars all down the 
Middle Ages. The Italian language was nearer the Latin 
than any other European language was, and more manuscripts 
of the. ancient Roman writers survived in Italy than else- 
where in Western Euro])e. Thus the Italian Prfrarch (1304- 
1374) stands out the first great champion of the coming age. 
His graceful sonnets are a famous part of Italian poetry, but his 
real work was as a tireless critic of the medie\al system. He 
attacked vehemently the superstitions and false science of the 
day; he ridiculed the universities, with their l)lind reverence 
for "authority," as "nests of gloomy ignorance." And he did 
more than destroy. He, and his disciides after liim, began 
enthusiastic search for classical mamiscrij)ts and other remains, 
to recover what the ancients had possessed of art and knowl- 
edge, and so brought back the study of Greek to Italy. 

After 1400, the increasing jx'ril from the Turk (and the high 
prices j)aid by ])rincely Italian collectors) led many (ireek 
scholars to flee from the East witli j)recious manuscrijits. And 



PLATE LIII 








Above. — Ca d'Oro, a Venetian Palace built in the thirteenth rentur\ . 

Below. — The Palace of the Doges (Ducal Palace) at Venice. Vene- 
tian architecture was based upon the Romanesque, modified by the 
Saracenic from the south and east and by the Gothic from the north and 
west. Cf . St. Marks, after p. 322. 



IN THE NORTH : ERASMUS 



323 



in Italy 



when Constantinople fell, Greek learning "emigrated to Italy," 
Soon the new enthusiasm for the classics {humcmism.) captured 
even the universities — which at first withstood it fiercely. 

Painting and sculpture were reborn, with the rebirth of delight Renais 
in life. Italian painting culminated in the years from 1470 to f^"T*!i^^* 
1550. To these eighty years belongs the work of Leonardo da 
Vinci, Michael Angelo, Perugino, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, 
Giorgione, Titian, Tintoretto, Correggio. A little later came 
the great periods of 
Dutch and Spanish 
painting. (The new 
development in this 
art in all these lands 
was made possible, of 
course, by new^ meth- 
ods of preparing oil 
paints, invented by 
the Van Eycks in Hol- 
land, so that it was 
possible to paint upon 
canvas, instead of 
only upon walls and 
ceilings.) 

In the north of 
Europe the Renais- 
sance was religious 
and scientific rather 
than artistic. A little 
before 1500, the " New 

Learning" from Italy was welcomed by an enthusiastic group 
of young scholars in England, known as the " Oxford Reformers." 
In Italy, Petrarch and his followers had started the new science 
of "historical criticism," — a careful study of old and corrupted 
documents to find out their original form and true meaning. 
The Oxford Reformers developed this science into a means of 
correcting e\ils and errors that had crept into religion. 

This was especially true of Erasmus, a Hollander living in 




Erasmus, a portrait by Holliein. 



The 

religious 
and scien- 
tific Renais- 
sance in 
the North 



324 



THE RENAISSANCE 



England. In 1516 he published tlie New Testament in the 
orif/inal Grt'cic, with a careful Latin translation, and with criti- 
cal notes. Now, for the first time, ordinary scholars could 
test the accuracy of the common transhition (the Vulgate) in 
use in the church. Afterward Erasmus edited the writings of 
many early Christian Eathers, to show the character of early 
Christianity. In another sort of works, as in his Pntise of 
Folli/, Erasmus lashed the false learning and foolish methods 
of the monks and Schoolmen. He has been called " the Scholar 
of the Reformation." But Erasmus did not break away 
from the great mother church. Instead, he worked, with 
beautiful charity and patience and largeness of view, for reform 
wit kin it. 

Another leader of the ()xf(M'd Reformers was Sir Thomas 
More, one of the noblest Englishmen of any age. He was a 
distinguished scholar — his learning brightened by a gentle 
and pervading humor — and a man of great personal charm. 
In the year that Erasmus published his Greek Testament, More 
issued his Deseripiion of the Rrpuhlie of i'topia ("Nowhere"). 
He portrays, with burning sympathy, the miseries of the P^nglish 
peasantry, and points accusingly to the barbarous social and 
political conditions of his time by contrasting with them the 
conditions in "Nowhere" — where the ])e(»])lc elect their gov- 
ernment (which accordingly is devoted sohly to their welfare), 
possess good homes, work sliort liouis, enjoy absolute freedom 
of speech, high intellectual culture, and universal happiness, 
with all property inconnnon. I'topid was the first of the many 
modern attempts to i)icture, in tlie guisr of fiction, an ideal 
state of societx . 

More inunediate and direct influence u])on tlie mighty change 
to a new age came from a nundx-r of new inxcntions that be- 
long to the Renaissance moNcment. The tele.seope revealed 
other worlds in the heavens. The indrinir's rv)»//>av.v enabled 
Cohnnbus to discover a New World on the old earth, (iiui- 
poieder (p. 305), which found its first serious use in the wars 
between Charles V and Erancis I, gave the final blow to dying 
feudalism. And print 'nuj did more to create a new society 



PRINTING, AND DISCOVERY 325 

than gunpowder could to destroy the old. Two of these new 
movements call for special notice. 

1. Early medieval manuscripts were all written on parch- 
ments. These were costly and hard to obtain in any desirable 
quantity. About 1300, to be sure, a cheaper paper was intro- 
duced by the Saracens ; but all books had still to be written 
by the pen. Soon after 1400, engravers began to make the re- 
production of books cheaper by engraving each page on a block 
of wood (as the Chinese seem to have done centuries earlier). 
This was still costly. But now, about 1450, John Gutenberg, 
at Mainz, found out how to " cast " separate metal type in molds. 

This invention of movable type reduced the price of books 
at once to a twentieth their old cost. It came, too, at a happy 
moment. It preserved the precious works recovered by the 
Humanists ; and soon it was to spread broadcast the new 
thought of the Reformation. 

2. The ancients had played with the notion of saiHng around New 

the earth. Aristotle speaks of "persons" who held that it geograpl"- 

cal discover- 
might be possible ; and Strabo, a Roman geographer, suggested ies 

that one or more continents might lie in the Atlantic between 

Europe and Asia. But during the Middle Ages men had come 

to believe that the known habitable earth was bounded on all 

sides by an uninhabitable and untraversable world, — on the 

north by snow and ice, on the south by a fiery zone, on the west 

by watery wastes stretching down an inclined plane, up which 

men might not return, and on the east b}^ a dim land of fog and 

fen, the abode of strange and terrible monsters. The Indian 

Ocean, too, was thought to be a lake, encompassed by the shores 

of Asia and Africa. 

These false views had been partly corrected by a better 
geographical knowledge of Asia, gained in the thirteenth and 
fourteenth centuries. Louis IX of France sent Friar Rubruk 
as ambassador to the court of the Tartar Khan in central 
Asia^(1264 a.d.) ; and the friar on his return reported that he 
had heard of a navigable ocean east of Cathay (China), with a 
marvelously wealthy island, Zipango (Japan). 

This rumor made a leap in men's thought. Friar Bacon in 



32(5 



'rilK KKXAISSAXCE 



Discoveries 
of Henry the 
Navigator 



Eiifjhind (p. 30.S) at once raised the (|U('stion whether this east- 
ei'M ocean iniudit not l)e tlie same as tlie one that washed Europe 
on tlie west and whetlier men might not reaeli Asia hy saihng 
west into the Athintic. Indeed, Baeon wrote a hook to support 
these conjeetures, adding many opinions of the Ancients; and 
extensive extracts from this vohime were eoj)ied into a later 
hook, whicli was to l)ecome a faxorite of ('oluml)us. Sucli 
specuhition imphes that .schohirs unck'rstood the spliericity of 
tlie earth. Sar;jcenic sciiools had preserved the old Greek 

knowledge in this matter, and 
some European thinkers had 
\)vvn familiar with it, even in 
tlie "Dark Ages." 

Now this became more than 
a curious question. The Cru- 
sades, we have seen, had gi\-en 
a new imi)ulse to trade with 
the Orient, hut in the fifteenth 
century, the progress of the 
/- 'mw'f'jrji^ '^V^NaM<ULH^"~i Turks threatened the old trade 

y~ - - -- — - routes. Constantinople, the 

MoNiTT^.cHmoTHEGLoBK.-an ^'mporimn for th(> route l.y the 
illustration in a thirteenth-century Black Sea, fell into their hands, 
"^^""■^""P^- and each y(>ar their power crept 

farther south in Asia, endangering the remaining routt' hy the 
Red Sea. Under these circumstances the question was forced 
home to Europe whether or )iof a neir route could !)<■ found. 

The Portuguese, under Prince Henry the Na\igator. liad 
already been engaged in i)uil(ling uj) a Portuguese empire in 
.\frica and in the islands of the .\tlantic (.\zores. Canary, and 
\'enle'); (Uid (dxH/t I '/^D thej/ hefimi to (iffeinpf to rxwh liidni 
1)1/ sailinfi uround Africa, In 14S() a Portuguese captain, li'ir- 
tholonnic Diaz, while engaged in tliis attempt, was carried fai- 
to the south in a storm, and on his r(>turn to tlie coast he found 
it on his lift hand as h(> mo\-ed toward th«' north. We followed 




' The name ' ( 'a|>e VercK 
at verdure .so far south. 



indicates tlie suri)rise of the di.scoverer.s ( 1150) 



A NEW WORLD 327 

it several hundred miles, well into the Indian Ocean. Then his 
sailors compelled him to turn back to Portugal. India was not 
actually reached until the expedition of Vasco da Gama in 
1498, after more memorable voyages in another direction. 

One of the sailors with Diaz in 1486, when in this way he Columbus 
rounded the Cape of " Good Hope," was a Bartholomew Colum- ^^*^ 
bus, whose brother Christopher also had sailed on several Portu- 
guese voyages. Now, however, for some years, Christopher 
Columbus had devoted himself to the more daring theory 
that India could be reached by sailing west into the open At- 
lantic. Portugal, well content with her monopoly of African 
exploration, refused to assist him to try his plan. Henry VII 
of England also declined to furnish him ships. But finally, the 
high-minded Isabella of Castile, while the siege of Granada 
was in progress, fitted out his small fleet, and in 1^92 Columbus 
revealed to Europe the continent of America — soon to be a 
chief factor in that "new world" toward which the old earth 
was now so swiftly spinning. 



APPENDIX 

A SELECT LIST OF BOOKS ON ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL 
HISTORY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS 

Prehistoric Culture 

Clodd, E., Story of Primitive Man (" Primer "). Appleton, New York. 

Story of the Alphabet. Appleton. 

Davenport, E., Domesticated Animals and Plants. Ginn, Boston. 
Dodge, R. J., Our Wild Indians. Hartford. 
Holbrook, F., Cave, Mound, and Lake Dwellers. Heath, Boston. 
Joly, N., Man before Metals. Appleton. 

Mason, O. T., Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. Appleton. 
Starr, F., Som^ First Steps in Human Progress. Flood and Vincent, 
Meadville, Pa. 

It is not suggested that a school library should own all the 
works above, until it is well supplied in other directions. But any 
of them will make entertaining reading. Before the recent rise 
in the cost of bookmaking they were cheap volumes — from 35 
cents to $2.50. More costly, and beautifully illustrated volumes 
in the same field are Solas' Ancient Hunters and Osborn's Men 
of the Old Stone Age. For Fiction, on the same period, the best 
attempt is Stanley Waterloo's Story of Ab. 

Oriental History 

Baikie, James, Story of the Pharaohs (illustrated). Macmillan. 
Breasted, J. H., History of the Ancient Egyptians. Scribner, New York. 
The same author has a larger, finely illustrated work covering the 
same ground. History of Egypt. Scribner, New Y^ork. 
** Davis, William Steams, Readings in Ancient History. Allyn and 
Bacon, Boston. Two volumes : " Greece and the East " and 
" Rome and the West." 

Volume I contains 60 pages of " source material " in Oriental 
history, with valuable introductions and comment. 
Hommel, F., Cimlization of the East (" Primer "). Macmillan. 
Jackson, A. V. W., Zoroaster. Macmillan. 

* Myres, J. L., Dawn of History (" Home University "). Holt. 

1 



2 APIMADIX 

Petrie, W. F., Arts and Crafls of Ancient K(f!//>t fillustratod). MrClurg. 
Soiiu'wluit tcclinical, hut by the most famous 10^;yi)tian explorer 
of our times. 
Sayre, A. H., Hdbiilonian^ and A.s.sijrians. Uevcll, Chieago. 
Winckler, Hugo, Bahylonia and Assyria. Scribner. 

Souiewliat ruore recent in scholarship than Sayre, hut hardly so 
readable. 

Ancient Crete 

Baikie, James, .S'm A'///(/.s o/ Cre/e (illustrated). Macmillan. 
Hawes and Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner oj Greece. Harpers. 

CiHEEK History 
Source Material 

** Davis, William Stearns, Readings in Ancient Histori/. 

See above. This should be the first library material purchased 
for Greek history, unle.ss it is bought by each student. Its use 
will make students wish to know more of certain ancient authors 
(l)elow). 

Aristotle, On the Constitution of Athens; translated l)y Kenyon. Mac- 
millan. 

This is the least readable of the books mentioned in this li.st ; i)ut 
it can be used in parts, under a teacher's direction. 

Herodotus, RawHnson's translation, edited by (Jrant; two volumes; 
Scribner. 

Macaulay's translation, two volumes. Macmillan. 

* Homer s Iliad, translated by Lang, Leaf, and Myers. Macmillan. 

* Homer's Odyssey, translated by Butcher and Lang. JMacmillan. 
Translated by Palmer. Houghton. 

Plutarch, Lives; translated 1)\ ('lough; r^'cryman's Library (l)utton. 
New York) ; three volumes. 

Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War. .lowett's translation ; 
Clarendon Press, Oxford; four volumes, or the same edited in 
one volume and published by Lothrop, Boston. 

Everyman's Library (Dutton, New York) gives several volumes 
of these classics at chea|)er rates. Constant additions are made 
to the Library. Herodotus and Thucydides can be obtained also 
in le.>^s desirable translations, but imidi ciicapcr, in Hnri)cr's Classi- 
cal Library. 

Modern Works. 

* Abbott. E., Pericles (" Heroes "). Putnam, New York. 
Bliimmer, H., Home Life of the Ancieid Greeks (profu.sely illustrated). 

( 'a.s.scll, Xew York. 

(Still valuable; but if the library is buying a new book on the 
subject, it should get Gulick, below. j 



APPENDIX 3 

* Bury, J. B., History of Greece to the Death of Alexander. Macmillan. 

* Church, E. J., Trial and Death of Socrates. Macmillan. 

A translation of four of Plato's Dialogues touching upon this 
period of Socrates' life. They are also the easiest of Plato's writ- 
ings for young people to understand. It has valuable comments. 
Cox, G. W., Greeks and Persians. Epochs Series. Longmans, New 
York. 

* Cox, G. W., The Athenian Empire. Epochs Series. Longmans. 
Cunningham, W., Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects: Ancient 

Times. Macmillan. 
The best work on its special phase. Very full for Greece. 

* Davis, William Stearns, A Day in Old Athens. Allyn and Bacon, 

Boston. 

A Victor of Salamis (novel). Macmillan. 

Exceedingly vivid presentation of Greek life. 

Gardiner, E. N., Greek Athletic Sports and Festivals (illustrated). Mac- 
millan. 

Gayley, C. M., Classic Myths. Ginn, Boston. 

* Grant, A. J., Greece in the Age of Pericles. Scribner. 

* Gulick, Chas. B., Life of the Ancient Greeks (illustrated). Appleton. 

* Mahaffy, J. P., Alexander s Empire. Putnam, New York. 
Old Greek Life (" Primer "). American Book Co. 

Progress of Hellenism in Alexander's Ernpire. University of 

Chicago Press. 

* Wheeler, Benjamin Ida, Alexander the Great (" Heroes "). Putnam. 

Bury is the best single work on Greek history. It closes with 
the death of Alexander. Cox's volumes in the Epochs Series 
are slightly preferable for the Athenian period; and Wheeler's 
Alexander is admirable for its period. For the age after Alexander, 
the best book is Mahaffy 's Alexander s Empire or his Progress 
of Hellenism. 

Roman History v 

Source Material. 

* Davis, William Stearns, Readings in Ancient History, as for Greek 

History above. 
Tacitus. 2 vols. Macmillan. 

Modern Works. 

* Beesly, A. H., The Gracchi, Marius and Sulla. Epochs Series. Long- 

mans. 

Bradley, H., The Goths (" Nations "). Putnam. 

Bury, J. B., The Roman Empire to 180 a.d. (" Student's "). Ameri- 
can Book Co. 



4 APPKNDIX 

* Capes, W. W., Enrb/ Roman Empire, l^pochs Series. Longmans. 
A(/c of the Antonincs. Epoclis Series. L()nf»;mans, 

Carr, The Churrfi and the Empire. Longmans. 
Church, A. J., lioman Life in the Days of Cicero. JNlacmillan. 
Church, R. W., Beginning of the Middle Ages. Epochs Series. Long- 
mans. 
Davis, William Stearns, A Friend of Caesar (fiction). IVIacmillan. 
Firth, J. B., Augustus Caesar. Putnam, New York. 

Constantine the Great. Putnam, New York. 

Fowler, Warde, Caesar (" Heroes "). Putnam. 
Fowler. S(>ci(d Life in the Age of Cicero. Macmillan. 
A useful and readable hook. 

* How and Leigh, History of Rome to the Death of Caesar. Longmans. 

* Ihne, Wilhelm, Early Rome. Epochs Series. Longmans. 
Inge, W. R., Society in Rome under the Caesars. Scribners. 
Johnston. H. W., Private Life of the Romans. Scott, Forcsman <fe Co., 

( 'hicago. 
Jones, H. S., The Roman Empire. Putnam. 

* Pelham, H. F.. Outlines of Roman History. Putnam. 

A single volume covering the whole period to 476 a.d., by a 
great scholar and teacher. 
Pellison, Roman Life in Pliny's Time. New York. 
Preston and Dodge, Private Life of the Romans. Leach, Boston, 
Smith, R. B., Rome and Carthage. Epochs Series. Longmans. 
Thomas, E., Roman Life under the Caesars. London. 

* Tighe, Ambrose. Development of the Roman Constitution (" Primers "). 

American Book Co. 

From the "Fall of Romk" to Columbus 
Source Material. 

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (Bohn). 
Chronirlcs of the Crusades (Bohn). 

* Davis, William Stearns. Readings in Ancient History, II. All> n 

and Bacon, Boston. 

Einhard, Charlemagne. AincTJcaii Book Coiupaiiy. 

English History from Contemporary {Writers). lOdited by F. York- 
Powell. 

A series of ten small volumes, all vi>ry valuable. Putnam, 
New "\'ork. 

* Hill, Mabel, Liberty Documents. Longmans. 
Joinville, Memoir of SI. Louis. (Various editions.) 
Lanier (editor), The Boy's Froissart. Scribner. 

Marco Polo, The Story of, edited by Noah Brooks. Century Co. 

* Ogg, T. A., Source Book of Medieval History. American Book Co. 



APPENDIX 



Modern Works. 



Adams, G. B., Growth of the French Nation. Macmillan. 
Civilization during the Middle Age. Scribner. 

* Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades (" Nations "). Putnam. 
Balzani, Popes and Hohenstaufen. Longmans. 

Beard, Charles, An Introduction to English Historians (extracts from 
leading authorities on interesting topics). Macmillan. 

Boyeson, H. H., Norway (" Nations "). Putnam. 

Brown, Horatio, The Venetian Republic (" Temple Primers "). Mac- 
millan. 

* Bryce, James, Holy Roman Empire. Macmillan. 

* Cheyney, E. P., Industrial and Social History of England. Mac- 

millan. 
Church, Beginnings of the Middle Ages {" Epochs "). Longmans. 
Clemens (Mark Twain), Joan of Arc. Harper. 
Cornish, F. W., Chivalry. Macmillan. 
Cox, G. W., The Crusades (" Epochs ")• Longmans. 
Cunningham and McArthur, Outlines of English Industrial History. 

Macmillan. 
Davis, H. W. C, Charlemagne (" Heroes "). Putnam. 

(Or see Hodgkin's Charles in the supplementary list below.) 

* Emmerton, Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. Ginn. 
Gilman, The Saracens {" Nsitions "). Putnam. 

Gray, The Children's Crusade. Houghton. 

* Green, J. R., History of the English People. 4 vols. Burt, New York. 

Or, in place of this last work, 

Short History of the English People. American Book Co. 

Green, Mrs., Henry II. Macmillan. 
Hughes, Thomas, Alfred the Great. Macmillan. 
Jenks, Edward Plantagenet (" Heroes "),. Putnam. 
Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars. Putnam. 
Jiriczek, Northern Hero Legends. Macmillan. 
Lane-Poole, Saladin {" Heroes "). Putnam. 

Masterman, J. H. B., Dawn of Medieval Europe ("Six Ages"). Mac- 
millan. 
Mullinger, University of Cambridge. Longmans. 
Oman, C. W. C, Byzantine Empire (" Nations "). Putnam. 
Pears, E., Fall of Constantinople. Harper. 
Perry, F., St. Louis (" Heroes "). Putnam. 

* Shepherd, W. R., Historical Atlas. Holt. 
Stubbs, Early Plantagenets (" Epochs "). Longmans. 
Tout, T. F., Edward I. Macmillan. 

Van Dyke, History of Painting. New York. 
Zimmem, H., The Hansa (" Nations "). Putnam. 



APPKXDIX 

These preeedinp; lists do not contain nearly all the hooks in these 
fields to he found in a lar^;e hif!;h school lihrary. They represent 
only such voliirncs as oiujhl to be conslaidbj ncces.sible to a first-year 
clans in the stioh/. \\ hen two hooks on the same field are named, 
one of them distinctly preferahle to the other (as with Blummer 
and Gulick on (Ireek Life), this is done hecause the lihrary may 
already have tlic older work — in whieh case it is not worth while 
to huy the other until more pressing needs are well supplied. 
The starred rolunies should be presetd in multiple copies. It seems 
desirahle to add the following; sui)pl(Mn('ntary list for the larfjer 
schools. 

Some Additional Books on the Last Phkiod 

Ashley, Introduction to English Economic History. XOl. I, Part L 

L()n^;mans. 
Beazley, Prince Henry the Navigator (" Heroes "). Putnam. 
Cutts, Parish Priests and Their People. London. 

Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages. New "^'ork. 

Du Chaillu, The Viking Age. 2 vols. Murray. 

Gasquet, F. A., Parish Life in Medieval England. New York. 

Hodgkin, T.. Charles the Great. Macmillan. 

James. G. P. R.. History of Chivalry. Harper. 

Jusserand, English Wayfaring Life in the Mithllc Ages. London. 

Keary, The Vikings of Western Christendom. Putnam. 

Liibke. History of Art. 2 vols. Dodd and .Meatl. 

McCabe. Abelard. Putnam. 

Morison. Life and Times of St. Bernard. Macmillan. 

Putnam. Ruth. Books and Their Makers in the Middk Ages. Putnam. 

Robinson and Rolfe, Pdrarch. Putnam. 

Sabatier, SI. Fninris. Scrihner. 

Saintsbury, Flourishing of Romance. Scrihn(M-. 

Smith. J. H.. The Troubadours at Home. Putnam. 

Stephens. W. R. W.. Hildebrand and His Times. Longmans. 

Symonds, J. A.. ShnrI History of the Rniai.ssancr in Uahi (clitr.! hy 

Pearson ). Scrihner. 
Vincent, The Age of Hildebrand. Scrihner. 
Weil. Venice (" Nations "). Putnam. 
York-Powell, Alfred the Trnth-TclUr. Putnam. 



INDEX 



Pronunciation, except for familiar names and terms, is shown by divi- 
sion into syllables and accentuation. When diacritical marks for English 
names are needed, the common marks of Webster's Dictionaries are used. 
German and French pronunciation can be indicated only imperfectly to 
those who are not familiar with the languages ; but attention is called to 
the following marks : ae and oe = e;ie = i; the soft aspirated guttural 
sound g of the German is marked g ; the corresponding ch (as in ich) is 
marked k ; the sound of the nasal French n is marked n; for the German 
a and du the equivalents are indicated, to prevent confusion with English 
a; 6 is always the German letter ; and li is the German sound which is 
equivalent to French u. In French words with an accent on the final syl- 
lable, that accent only is marked ; but it should be understood that in 
such words the syllables as a rule receive nearly equal stress. Silent 
letters are put in ItaUc. 

For most geographical names, except such common ones as England 
or Italy, the index indicates a map on which the location is shown. 



Aachen (aK'gn), 260; map after 
p. 260. 

Abbey, term explained, 252, note. 

Abelard (iib'e-lard), Peter, 301. 

Abraham, founder of Hebrews, 48. 

Absolutism, 231. 

Abyssinia (ab-ys-sin'i-a), 24 ; see 
Ethiopia, map, 10. 

Academy, Plato's, at Athens, see 
Museum. 

Accad (ac'ciid), 30; map after p. 
•18. 

Achaea (a-€h«'a), map after p. 52. 

Achaean (a-ehse' an) League, 142, 
note. 

Achilles (a-ehil'les), 62, 64, 66. 

Acropolis (a-crop'o-lis), the central 
hill-fort about which grew up an- 
cient cities, 61. 

Acropolis of Athens, in age of Peri- 
cles, 103 and map opposite, 106- 
7, and Plate XX. 



Actium (ac'ti-um). Battle of, 210; 

map after p. 52. 
Adrianople (ad'ri-an-o'ple). Battle 

of, in 378 a.d., 245; map after 

p. 260. 
Adriatic Sea, dividing line between 

Greek and Latin cultures, 182, 

224 ; between Greek and Roman 

churches, 256. 
Aediles (ae'dlles), Roman, 169. 
Aegaean (ae-gx'an) Sea, home of 

early culture, 53; see Crete, 

Knossos, Mycenae, maps after 

pp. 52, 70. 
Aegina (ae-gl'na), map after p. 52. 
Aegospotami (ae-g6s-p6t'a-mi) 

(Goat Rivers), Battle of, 127. 
Aemilianus (ae-mil-i-ii'nus), Pub- 

lius Scipio, 180-1. 
Aequians (e'kwi-ans), map, 150. 
Aeschylus (aes'chy-lus), 108. 
Africa, early copper civihzations in 



INDEX 



Nile \'alk\v, G; see Egypt; cir- 
cumnavigation of, by ancient 
Egyptians, 27 ; Phoenician col- 
onies in, 40, 47 ; CJrcek colonies 
in, 70; prosperity under Rome, 
219, 220; Vandal kingdom in, 
245 and map after 248; con- 
quered by Mohammedans, 254; 
see Egypt antl Carthage . 

Agamemnon (ag-a-m6m'n6n), 62. 

Agesilaus (a-g6s-i-la'us). King of 
Sparta, 130. 

Agora (ag'6-ra), at Athens, 120; 
map, 101. 

Agrarian Laws, term explained, 
192, note; Solon's, 77; Licin- 
ian, 160; of the Gracchi, 192-6; 
of Caesar, 207. 

Agricola fa-gric'd-lii), and the Pan- 
theon, Plate facing 225. 

Agriculture, prehistoric, woman's 
part in, 4-5; selection of our 
food plants, 7 ; in Egypt, 16-7 ; 
in Babylonia, 38 ; in Homeric 
Greece, 6^3-4 ; in age of Pericles, 
119; early Roman, 15S; Ro- 
man about 200 B.C., 170; after 
Punic Wars, 1S5-8 ; serf labor 
in later Empire, 235 ; primitiv^e 
under Feudal system, 273-6; 
Saracenic, 294. 

Alba Longa (ftl'ba l6n'g!i), 150, and 
maj), Hk 

Alchemy falShfin-y), 302-3. 

Alcibiades (al-cT-bi'a-des), 12(). 

Alemanni (:l-la-m;in'ne), 229 ; map 
after 2 }S. 

Alexander the Great, 35; ct)n- 
quests, 135-7; merging of the 
East and West, 137-8; ex- 
plorations, 139 ; routes, map 
after 131. 

Alexander VI, Pope, 315. 

Alexandria, name of inanv Greek 



cities in Asia, 137-8, map after 
p. 134. 

Alexandria in Egypt, founded, 136; 
glory of, 142; library at, 145; 
center of culture under Rome, 
224 ; Patriarchate of, 255 ; falls 
to Mohammedans, 256 ; map 
after p. 134. 

Alexandrian Library, 145. 

Alexandrian Lighthouse, 141-2. 

Alexandrian Museum, 145-6. 

Alfred the Great, 268-9. 

Algebra, origin, 295. 

Alhambra (al-ham'bra), Plate 
XLV, facing 294. 

Alphabet, growth, 8; Phoenician, 
47; Cretan, 55; completed by 
the Greeks, 59. 

America, discovery, 325-7. 

Ammon, Temple of (Hall of Col- 
umns), at Karnak, Plate IV. 

Amos, Hebrew prophet, 51. 

Amphitheater (am-phi-the'a-ter), 
term explained, 208; at Pom- 
peii, 208 ; at Rome, see Colos- 
seum. 

Anaxagoras (an-flx-Jlg'o-ras), 110. 

Ancestor worship, primitive, 3; 
Egyptian, 22 ; Greek, 64 ; Ro- 
man, 153-4. 

Andrea del Sarto (an-dre';i dfl 
sar'to), 323. 

Angles (an'ghs), in Britain, 245; 
map after 24S. 

Anio (a'liT-o) River. 148; map, 150. 

Antigone (an-tlg'o-ne), 115. 

Antioch, 220; map after p. 218. 

Antonlnes (an'to-nines), the, 217. 

Antoninus (an-to-ni'nus), Marcus 
Aurelius, 217-8. 226-7. 

Antoninus Pius, 217. 

Antonius fan-to'ni-us), Marcus 
fMark .\ntony), 209, 210. 

Apelles (a-pgl'lcif), 143. 



INDEX 



9 



Aphrodite (aph-ro-di'te), 65; 
statue (of Melos), 143. 

Apollo (a-p6l'lo), 65; oracle of, 69; 
Belvedere, 141, 143; see Plate 
XVII. 

Appian (ap'pi-an), historian, 226. 

Appian (ap'pi-an) Way, the, 166, 
167 ; see Roman Roads, and map, 
p. 168. 

Appius Claudius, censor, 152, 167. 

Apprentices, see Gilds in Middle 
Ages. 

Aquae Sextiae (ak'we s6x'ti-e), 
Battle of, 198 ; map after p. 176. 

Aqueducts, of Pisistratus, 79; in 
Graeco-Oriental cities, 138; in 
Roman cities, 220. 

Aquitaine (a-kwi-tan'), 253, 255; 
map after 252. 

Arabic notation, origin, 7 ; and the 
Arabs, 294 ; adopted in Europe, 
297. 

Arbela (ar-be'la), Battle of, 136; 
map facing p. 135. 

Arc, Joan (Jon) of, 312 and 
Plate opposite. 

Arch, Egyptian, 21; Babylonian 
(oldest known), 30; Roman, 
224, and many cuts; Norman, 
282; pointed in Gothic archi- 
tecture. Plates after 282, 288, 
and 304. 

Archbishops, origin, 255; in 
Middle Ages, 128. 

Archimedes (ar-ehi-me'des), 146, 
178. 

Architecture, prehistoric, Plate 
after p. 4; Egyptian, 15, 21, and 
Plates III-VIII; m Chaldea 
and Assyria, 39-40 ; Persian bor- 
rowed,- 42 and Plate after 44; 
Grecian, orders of, 72 ; in age of 
Pericles, 106-7; Roman (under 
the Empire), 225; Saracenic, 



294 and Plates after 244, 294; 
Romanesque, Plate after 304; 
Gothic, 288, 304, and Plates 
XLVIII and especially XLIX. 

Archon (ar'ehon), 76. 

Areopagus (ar-e-op'a-giis). Council 
of, 76, 78. 

Ares (a'res), 65. 

Argolis (ar'go-hs), map after p. 
52. 

Argos (ar'gos), map after p. 52. 

Arian (a'ri-an) heresy, 241-2. 

Aristarchus (ar-is-tar'chus), 146. 

Aristides (ar-is-ti'des), 91. 

Aristocracy, term explained, 62, 
note. 

Aristophanes (ar-is-t6ph'a-nes), 
108. 

Aristotle (ar'is-t6t-le), quoted on 
early Athens, 76, 80 ; and Alex- 
ander, 135, 139; philosophy, 
143-4; on sphericity of the 
earth, 146. 

Arius (a'ri-us), of Alexandria, 242. 

Armenia (ar-me'ni-a), map after 
p. 218. 

Armor, feudal, 269. 

Art, prehistoric, 3, 4, and Plates 1 
and II; Egyptian, 21-2, and 
Plates III-X; Babylonian, 38- 
9; and cuts on 34-9, Plate 
XIII; Persian, borrowed, 42; 
Greek, to 500 b.c, 70-2; in age 
of Pericles, 106 flf . ; in Alexandrian 
age, 229-30; in Middle Ages, 
560-1 ; at Renaissance, 597. 

Artaxerxes (ar-ta-zerx'es), cut fac- 
ing 44. 

Artemis (ar'te-mis), 165. 

Asia, Province of, 199. 

Aspasia (as-pa'si-a), 113. 

Assyria (as-syr'i-a), 29-30; Em- 
pire, 31 ; militarism, 31-2 ; fall, 
32; society and culture (see 



10 



INDEX 



Bahi/lonia), 39, 40; see map 
after IS. 

Astrology. Chaldean, .SS ; incdle- 
val. :i()l>. 

Astronomy, l-^jiyptian, 20; Chal- 
dean, 3S; (ireek, 14t); Sara- 
cenie, 294. 

Athanasius (ilth-an-ri'.si-us), 241. 

Athene (a-thr'ne), 05; statues of, 
on the Acropolis, 107. 

Athens, map after 52 and 94 ; plan, 
101 ; consolidation of Attica by, 
01; mother of "Ionia," 07; 
democratic gains before 500 b.c, 
76 fT. ; discontent of the poor, 
77; wealth gains political power, 
77; written laws, 78; Solon's 
reforms, 78-9 ; continued class 
stride, and tyrants, 79-80; re- 
forms of Clisthenes, 80-1 ; and 
Persian Wars, 88-96; rebuilt, 
and walls, 97-8; the Piraeus, 
98; and Confederacy of Delos, 
99; and Athenian Empire, 100 
ff. ; power and numbers, 183; 
democracy, 104 ff. ; assembly, 
under Pericles, 105; juries and 
payment, 105-6 ; public .service, 
106 ; intellect and art in age of 
Pericles, 106-12; as described 
by Pericles, 112; and Pelopon- 
nesian War, 124-9; CJoat Rivers, 
and surrentler, 127 ; under Spar- 
tan rule, 128 ff. ; " the Thirty," 
and restoration of democracy, 
128-9 ; shelters Theban demo- 
crats, 130; and Philip of Mace- 
don, 134; center of learning 
under Rome, 224. 

Athos (a'thos). Mount, map after 

Attica, after Dorian inv-asions, ()7 ; 

map after 52, and on 94. 
Attic Comedy. 109. 



Augurs, Roman, 154. 
• Augustan Age," 212, 226. 
Augustine, mi.ssionary to Britain, 

26S. 
Augustus, Roman Emperor, see 

Octiii'ius Caesar. 
Aurelian (au-re'll-an). Emperor, 

229-30. 
Aurelius, .see AntoniKus. 
Auspices, Roman, 154. 
Austria, origin. 292; .seized by 

Hapsburgs, 3l('); head of Holy 

Roman Empire, bulwark against 

Turks, 317; and Netherlands, 

319. 
Avars, map after 260. 
Aventine (a'v6n-tlne), the, map, 

151. 
Avignon (a-ven-y6n'), Papacy at, 

313-5. 

Babylon, map after 18, on 33; 
land and people, 29-30; early 
city-state, 30; and Hammurapi 
(First Empire), 31; subject to 
A.ssyria, 31 ; Second Empire, 
32-3; fall, 33; society, indus- 
try, and art, 34 ff. ; cuneiform 
script, 36-7; laws of Hammu- 
rapi, 35-() ; religion and morals, 
40. 

" Babylonian Captivity." of the 
(Muirch. 313-5. 

Bacon, Roger, 303 ; ami Colum- 
bus, 325-6. 

Bactriana (bac-trt-an'a), map fac- 
ing 135. 

Bagdad (bag'dAd). maj) after 2()0. 

Ball. John, and the Pea.^ant Ri.sing, 
307 ff. 

Banquet, in Creek life, 121-2. 

Barbarian Invasions, in Oriental 
hi.slory, 5, 25, 30. 32, 42-3; in 
times of Marius and Caesar, 



INDEX 



11 



197, 201 ff. ; on frontiers of 
Roman Empire, 223 ; into Em- 
pire from Aurelius to Aurelian, 
218, 229; success in 4th cen- 
tury, 244 flf. See Teutons, 
Norsemen, Hungarians. 

" Barbarians," to Greeks, 68. 

Barca (bar'ca), see Hamilcar. 

" Barrack Emperors," 229. 

Barter, Trade by, see Money. 

Basilica (ba-siri-ca), Plate after 
240. 

Battle, Trial by, 249. 

Bavaria, and the Franks, 253, 255 ; 
map facing 253. 

Bayeux (ba-e') Tapestry, 284. 

Belgium, see Netherlands ; becomes 
Austrian, 319. 

Belvedere (bel-ve-dere'), Apollo, 
141, 143. 

" Benefit of clergy," 280. 

Beneventum (ben-e-ven'tum), Bat- 
tle of, 162 ; map after 148. 

Benvenuti, Italian authority upon 
Roman antiquities, Plates XXXI, 
XLI. 

Bible, the, translated into Greek 
(Old Testament), 145; into 
English, by Wyclif, 307; see 
Erasmus. * 

" Bills," origin of, in Parliament, 
309. 

Bishops, origin of, 255 ; in Middle 
Ages, 279-80. 

Bithynia (bi-thyn'i-a), map after p. 
218. 

" Black Death," the, 306-9. 

Black Sea, and early Greek colo- 
nies, 70. 

Boeotia (boe-o'ti-a), map after p. 
52; see Plataea, Thebes. 

Bohemia, map after p. 260; and 
Hussites, 314-5 ; loses Austria 
to Hapsburgs, 316. 



Boniface VIII, Pope, 313. 

Bordeaux (bor-do'), map after p. 
248. 

Borgia (bor'gia), family, 315. 

Brandenburg, Mark of, see Prus- 
sia. 

" Bread and Games," 207-8. 

Brennus (bren'nus), Gaul, 161. 

Britain, and Phoenicians, 46; and 
Romans, 213; Hadrian's Wall 
in, 217; abandoned by Romans 
— Teutonic Conquest, 267-8 ; 
rechristianized, 268; see Eng- 
land. 

Bronze Age, the, 6; see Egypt, 
Babylonia. 

Brutus, Marcus, 209. 

" Bull," the Papal, term explained, 
287. 

Burgundians, settlement in Gaul, 
245; map after 248. 

Burgundy, Duchy of, map after p. 
290. 

Byzant (coin), 295. 

Byzantine (by-zan'tine) Empire, 
see Greek Empire. 

Byzantium (by-zan'ti-um), map 
after 70 ; see Constantinople. 

Ca-diz' (or Ga'des), founded, 47; 
map after p. 70. 

Caelian (c£e'li-an) Hill, map, p. 151. 

Caesar, Caius Julius, and Sulla, 
200, 201 ; in Gaul, 201 ; rupture 
with Pompey, 202 ff. ; five-year 
rule, 205 ff. ; the hope of subject 
peoples, 206 ; constructive work, 
206-8; murder, 209; author, 
226. 

" Caesar," a title, 219. 

Calendar, Eg3'ptian, 20; Caesar's, 
208; Gregory's, 208, note. 

Caligula (ca-lig'u-la), Emperor, 
213. 



12 



IXDKX 



Campania fcMin-pa'ni-a), map after 

p. 1 IS. 
Campus Martius (inar'ti-us), map. 

l.-)!. 
Canal, Nile to Red Sea, 18, 27, 44 

and note. 
Cannae (caii'iia')* Battle of, 17(). 
Canon Law. l2s(). 
Canterbury Tales. 304; quoted, 

sec Chaucer. 
Capet Cka-pfi'), Hugh, 291. 
Capetians (ca-pe'ti-ans), 291 ff. 
Capitoline. the, map, p. 151. 
Capitularies (ca-pit'u-la-ries), 

( 'liarlcniafine's, 261. 
Cappadocians (rap-pa-do 'ci-ans), 

map after 134. 
Capua (cap'ii-a), destroyed by 

Rome, 17(), 179; map after 148. 
Cardinals. College of, 281. 
Carolingians (car-o-lin'gi-ans), de- 
generate, 205-6, 290, 291 ; term 

explained, 290. 
Carpentry, in ancient Crete, 56. 
Carthage. Phoenician colony, 47. 

124 ; and Greeks in Sicily, 8>s ; 

and Rome, Punic Wars, 174- 

281; "blotted out." 180-1; 

rebuilt by Caesar. 207; maf) 

after p. 70. 
Cassius (cash'ius), .-md Caesar. 

209. 
Cassius. Spurius 's|)u'rius). 159. 
Cato. Marcus Fortius, 180, 191. 
Cave-men (Stone Age), 1-4. 
Celt, term explained, 267, note. 
Censors. Roman. 1()9. 
Centralization, in government, 

term explained. 231. 
Ceres I'rc're^), 65, 153. 
Chaeronea (ehier-o-ne'a), Battle of, 

134. 
Chalcis (ehal'cis), map after p. 52; 

and colonies, 70. 



Chaldea (chal-de'a), map after 18; 
convenient but not strictly 
projuT name for the Eu[)hrates 
district ; .see Babyloti. 

Champollion (sham-p6l-li-6n'), 

French authority on Egyptian 
hieroglyphics, 20. 

Charlemagne (sharre-man), 279; 
defensive wars, 259-60; and 
revival of Roman Empire in the 
West, 260; civilization in his 
age, 261 ; government, 261 ; and 
learning, 262; place in history, 
262-3. 

Charles Martel (mar-tfl'), 253 
255. 

Charles the Bold, 319. 

Charles V, of Holy Roman Empire, 
and danger of world despotism, 
319-20. 

Chaucer, 304; quoted, 279. 307. 

Cheops (ehe'Sps), .see Khufn. 

Chinvat (chfn'vat) Bridge, the, 45. 

Chios (chl'ds), map after 52. 

Chivalry, 277-9. 

Christ, birth. 212. 

Christianity, early beginnings, 212, 
214, 237; Nero's persecution, 
214; debt to the Empire, 237; 
and persecutions, 237-9; tol- 
erated and favored by Constan- 
tine. 239; state religion under 
Theodosius. 241 ; persecutes 
pagans, 241 ; anil heresies, 242- 
3; .see Church, Papncij. 

Church, the. see Christianity and 
Papacy; organization and early 
history, 255-6 ; schism between 
East and West, 256-7; Roman 
hardship in Latin Christen- 
dom, 257; tem|)oral power. 257; 
see Papacy. 

Cicero. 190; " age of." 226. 

Cid. Song of the, 303. 



INDEX 



13 



Cilicia (ci-Wcia), map after p. 70. 

Cimbri (cim'bri), the, 197. 

Cimon (ci'mon), 100. 

Cincinnatus (cin-cin-na'tus), 171. 

Circuit Judges, in England, origin, 
285. 

Cisalpine (cis-arpine) Gaul, map, 
148. 

Citeaux (si-to'), Abbey of, 252. 

Cities, see Towns. 

City-states, in old Egypt, 11; in 
Euphrates valley, 30 ; in Hellas, 
— the limit of Greek political 
ideals, 61 ; failure, 132 ; ap- 
proach to, in Middle Ages, 300. 

Civil Service, term defined, 106, 
note. 

Claudius (claud'i-us). Emperor, 
213. 

Claudius, Appius, 162, 167. 

Clazomenae (cla-zom'e-nie), map 
after p. 70. 

Clement VII, 314. 

Cleon (cle'on), Athenian, 126. 

Cleopatra (cle-o-pa'tra), 204, 209. 

Cleruchs (cler'uehs), 80. 

Cliff caves, and prehistoric remains, 
1, 2, and Plate I. 

Clisthenes (clis'the-nes), 80-1. 

Cloaca Maxima (clo-ii'ca max'i- 
ma), the, 152. 

Clovis (clo'vis), 252. 

Coinage, see Money. 

Colchis (col'^his), map after p. 70. 

Cologne (ko-lonO, map after 218. 

Colosseum, the, Plate after 228. 

Colimibus, Christopher, and Amer- 
ica, 327. 

Combat, Trial by, 249. 

Commerce, early routes, Egyptian, 
17-8; of Euphrates States, 35; 
Phoenician, 46-7 ; and inven- 
tion of coinage, 41 ; and Greek 
geography, 69-70, 84-5; Ro- 



man, 150, 171, 180, 184, 219- 

23; growth in Europe after 

Crusades, 297-8. 
Commodus (com'mo-dus), 218. 
Common Law, the Enghsh, 285. 
Commons, House of, origin, 290. 
Compass, the Mariners', invention 

of, 324. 
Compurgation (com-pur-ga'tion), 

Trial by, 248. 
Constantine, Emperor, and Chris- 
tianity, 239-40 ; and the Nicene 

Creed, 242. 
Constantine VI, 260, 261. 
Constantine Palaeologus (pa-lse-o'- 

16-gus), 317. 
Constantinople, map after p. 218; 

capital of Greek Empire, 

247; repels Saracens, 254; and 

the Crusades, 295; captured, 

367. 
Constitution, term explained, 79. 
Consuls, Roman, 169. 
Copper, first use for tools, 6. 
Corcyra (cor-cy'ra), map after p. 

70. 
Corinth, and Peloponnesian War, 

124; destroyed by Rome, 187; 

rebuilt by Caesar, 207; map 

after 52. ' 
Corinthian Order, of architecture, 

72. 
Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, 

192, 194, 196. 
Correggio (k6r-6d'jo), 323. 
Crassus, 200, 201, 202. 
Crecy (krgs'si). Battle of, 306; 

map after p. 290. 
Cretan civilization, ancient, 53 ff. ; 

alphabet, 55; see Knossos; 

map after 18 and 52. 
Croesus (crce'sus), 41. 
Crotona, map after 70. 
Crusades, 294-6 ; results, 297 ff . 



14 



INDEX 



Cuneiform script, 36 and Plates 

following. 
Curials (cu'ri-al.s), lioman, 234. 
Curio. Manius, 170. 
Curule offices, 1()9. 
Cynic philosophy, 144. 
Cyrene ivy-u-'uv), map after p. 70. 
Cyrus " the Great," 42, 88. 
Cyrus the Younger. 129-30. 

Dacia (da'ri-a), 217; map after p. 

218. 
Damascus (da-m;ls'cus), map after 

I). 2 IS. 
Danelaw (drinf''la\v)(or Danelagh), 

2(JS and map opposite. 
Darius Codomannus (da-rl'us c6d- 

o-man'nu.s). and Alexander, 136. 
Darius the Organizer, 43-4, 88-9. 
" Dark Ages," the, 301. 
David, Kin;:; of the Hebrews, 50. 
Decarchies (d6f''areh-ies), under 

Sparta. 127. 
Decemvirs (de-rCm'virs), Roman, 

159. 
Delos (de'los), Confederacy of, 99- 

100; island, maj) after p. 52. 
Delphi. ()S ; repul.se of Gauls from, 

1 41 ; map after p. 52. 
Delphic Oracle, <)S-9. 
" Demagogues." in .\tliens, term 

oxpiaincd, 101. 
Demeter (de-mr'ter), 65 ; see Ceres. 
Demosthenes fde-mfts'th("-ne§), 

orator, 134. 
Diaz fd("-as'), and };o()^ra|)liical di.s- 

('over\-, 323. 
Diocletian fdi-Tj-clr'tl-an), Em- 
peror, 330-3 ; persocution of 

Christians by, 239. 
Diogenes fdi-<5fc'f-ne§), 144. 
Dionysius (<li-o-ny'si-us), 22(). 
Dionysus (dl-o-ny'sus), pod of the 

vintage and the drama, 108; 



theater of, at Athens, 109 and 
Plate o[)posite. 

Domesday (domes'day) Book, 285. 

Domestication of animals, prehis- 
toric, 2, 1, 7; in am-ient Egypt, 
17 ; of plants, 5. 7. 

Dominicans (dd-min'i-cans), 283. 

Domitian, Emperor, 216. 

" Donation of Pippin." 25S. 

" Do-Nothing Kings." the, 253. 

Dorians, <)7. 

Doric Order, of architecture, 72. 

Draco (dra'co), laws of, 77. 

Drama, Greek, 108-9. 

Drusus (dni'sus), rival of Grac- 
chus, 195 ; champion of the Ital- 
ians, 19S. 

Ducal Palace (Venice), Plate facing 
321. 

Duns the Scot. 302 ; " dunce." 303. 

East Goths. 245, 248; map after 
248. 

Eastern Empire, see Greek Empire. 

Ebro (e'hro), map after p. 176. 

Ecbatana (6c-ba-tiin'a), map fac- 
ing i;;5. 

" Economics," term evj)lained, 77, 
note. 

Edfu (ed'frn. Temple at. Plate 111 

Education and learning, in Egypt 
lS-21 ; in Gh.aldea. 36-S ; ir 
AtluMis. lOS-13. 123; undei 
Roman Ivnpire, 224-6; de 
cline in 3(1 and 4th centuries 
231). 242-3; 'in Dark Ages,'l 
24() ; in monasteries, 252 ; an< 
Gharlemagne. 262; and Alfrec 
the Great. 268; Saracenic, 294 
5; in 11th century, 301-4; se 
Unircrsitic.'<; in Renais.sanCj 
Age, 322-5. | 

Edward I, of England, and ^ ' 
liament, 289. 



INDEX 



Ifj 



Edward II, deposed, 305. 

Edward III, 305 ff. 

Egbert, of Wessex, 268. 

Egypt, early home of bronze cul- 
ture, 6; land and people, 9-11; 
and the Nile, 9-11; map, 10 
government, 1 1 ; social classes 
and daily life, 12-4 ; trade (bar- 
ter), 13, 17, 18; woman in, 14- 
5; "Old Kingdom" (pyra- 
mids), 15-6; Middle Kingdom 
(irrigation system), 16; agri- 
culture, 16-7; commerce, 17-8; 
artisans, 18 ; books and writing, 
18-20; science, 20-1; sculp- 
ture, 21-2; religion and charac- 
ter, 22; and relation to other 
lands, 24 fif. ; militarism and fall, 
26-8; under the Ptolemies, 
141-2; conquered by Saracens, 
254. 

Elbe (el'be), map after p. 260. 

Electoral College, of the Holy 
Roman Empire, 316. 

Elgin marbles, 107. 

Elis (e'lls), map after p. 52. 

Empire, term explained, 30, note. 

England, see Britain; local insti- 
tutions (Saxon), 283; Norman 
Conquest, 283-4 ; Henry II and 
the courts, 285 ; growth of Com- 
mon Law, ib.; Magna Carta, 
286-7 ; and Parliament, 287-90 ; 
and Hundred Years' War, 305 
ff. ; Black Death and disappear- 
ance of villeinage, 306-9; peas- 
ant rising of 1381, 308; Parlia- 
ment under Lancastrians, 309- 
10; Wars of Roses, 311 ; '' New 
Monarchy " of the Tudors, 3il. 

Epaminondas (e-pam-i-non'das), 
131-2. 

Epherus (eph'e-riis), 67; map 
after p. 52. 



Epic poetry, Greek, 72-3. 
Epictetus (ep-ic-te'tus), slave phi- 
losopher, 226. 
Epicureanism (ep-i-cii-re'an-ism), 

144. 
Epicurus (ep-I-cii'rus), 144. 
Epirus (e-pl'rus), map after p. 52. 
Erasmus (e-ras'mus), 323-4. 
Eratosthenes (er-a-t6s'th6-nes), 

keeper of Alexandrian Library, 

146. 
Erechtheum (e-r6ch'the-um), Plate 

facing 130. 
Eretria (e-re'tri-a), 89; map after 

p. 52. 
Esquiline (es'qui-llne), map, p. 151. 
Estates General, French, 291. 
Ethiopia (e-thi-o'pi-a), map, p. 10. 
Etruria (e-tru'ri-a), map after 148 

and on 150. 
Etruscans (e-triis'cans), 149, 150, 

151, 152. 
Euboea (eu-boe'a), map after 52. 
Eucid (eu'cid), 146. 
Euphrates (eu-phra'tes), 29; map 

after 18. 
Euripides (eu-rip'i-des), 108. 
Excommunication (ex-com-mu-ni- 

ca'tion), 289. 
Experiment, method of, not known 

to Greeks, 112-3. 

Fabian (fa'bi-an) policy, see Fa6zt<5. 

Fabius (fa'bi-us) (Q. Fabius Maxi- 
mus), 176. 

Falconry, 275. 

Ferdinand of Aragon, 317, 319. 

Feudalism, causes, 269, 272 ; castlea 
and armor, 271 ; origin of classes 
and of privileges, 270; decen- 
tralization, 271-2 ; private wars, 
273; and the workers, 273-6; 
life of the fighters, 276-7; chiv- 
alry, 277-9. 



ixi)i:x 



Fire-making, 7. 

Flavian dlfi'vi-an) Caesars, 21.'). 

Fortescue (toi'trs-cuc), Sir John. 

;;i(). .{11. 

Forum (to'niin), M)o Roman, ori- 
gin. l.")(); iiiaj), 1.51; Cac.sar'.s, 
20S and Plates opposite aiui 
after 2(H). 

France, see (lanl and Verdun, 
Treat!/ of; rise of Capetians, 
290-1 ; growth of territory and 
of royal power, 290-1 ; and 
Hundred Years' War, 305-12; 
absolutism, 312. 

Francis I, of France, 320. 

Franciscans (fran-cis'cans), 283. 

Franks, 245, 252-9; see Charle- 
magne and maps after 248, 252, 
2(U). 

Friars. 283. 

Frieze (fr/ezf), in arehiterture, 72; 
see Parthenon and p. 97. 

Froissart (froiss'-irt), on .John Ball. 
;}()7. 

Gades (ga'de.s) (Cadiz), Phoenician 
colony, 47; map after 70. 

Galatia ft>a-la'ti-a), 1 U ; maj) after 
•J is. 

Gauls, invasion of (Ireek Orient, 
141; in Italy, 149; .sack Rome, 
101 ; Caesar in Gaul, 200-1 ; see 
Cisalpinr (laid, Roman Empire. 

" Generation," a, as measure of 
time, explained, 41, note. 

Genucius (j>en-u'ci-us), 1(>1. 

Geography, and historv, in I'^pypt, 
9-11. 20; in Clialdea, 29, 35; in 
Hellas, .')3. (il. r)7, and especially 
84-() ; in Italy and with Rome, 
148-51 ; discoveries at clo.se of 
Middle A^rvs, 322-7. 

Geometry, lOfiyptian. 20; ("lial- 
dean. '.',7 ; Creek. 71. ll«i. 



Germany, see Teutons, Franks, and 
Charlemagne; and Treaty of 
X'erdun, 205 and njap oppo.site ; 
expansion into Slav East, 292 
and ma|); and Otto I (close of 
Itarharian invasions), 292; and 
Holy Roman lOmpire, 292-3; 
decline of German kingship and 
political chaos, 293, 315-6; see 
Austria, Hapshurgs, and mai)s 
after 302, 314. 

Gilds (j>iMs), Roman, 171, 221, 
234-5 ; medieval, 229-30. 

Giorgione (jor-jo'ne), 323. 

Gizeh (ji;C''zeh), map, 10. 

Gladiators, 186. 

Goshen (gosh 'en). Land of, 48-9. 

Goths, see East Goths and West 
(loths. 

Gothic architecture, 304 and cuts 
and Plates, 288, 318 and after 
20(), 2S2, and especially 304. 

Gracchus, Caius fgrac'chus, cai'- 
us), 194-0. 

Gracchus, Tiberius, 192-4. 

Graeco-Oriental (gra'co) World, 
the, 137 fT. ; Hellenism of the 
active element, 137-8; the many 
Alexantlrias in, 138; wealth, 
139; .scientific exj)editions, 139; 
Wars of the Succession, 140; 
resemblance to modern Europe, 
140-1; Gallic invasion. Ml; 
.society and culture, 141-7. 

Granada, fall, 317. 

Granicus (gra-nl'cus,) Battle of, 
13t); maj) after p. 134. 

Grand Jury, origin, 285. 

Greek Church, the, .separation from 
Latin, 2.').')-0. 

Greek contributions to civilization 
(summary), 147. 

Greek Empire (or Eastern Em- 
pire), 247-S, 25.')-7 ; and Charle- 



INDEX 



17 



magne, 260-1 ; threatened by 
Turks, 295; and Crusades, ib. ; 
overthrown liy Turks, 317. 

Greek home life, in age of Pericles, 
116-23. 

Greek language, recovery of, in 
closing Middle Ages, 317, 322-3. 

Greek philosophy, 6th century, 
73-4; in age of Pericles, 110-2; 
in Alexandrian age, 143-4. 

Greek religion, 64-6; moral side, 
114-5. 

Greek theater, 108-9. 

Greeks, the, and Ancient Egypt 
27 ; prehistoric culture, 53 ff. ; 
Cretan, 53-6; Mycenae "rich 
in gold," 56-7; Achaean, 58; 
fusion with earher culture, 
60 ff. ; city-state, 61-2; Ho- 
meric society, 62 ff. ; religion, 
64-6 ; Dorian conquest, 67 ; 
1000-500 B.C., 68 ff. ; expansion 
by colonization, 69-70 and map 
after 70; disappearance of Ho- 
meric kingship, 74 ; art and phi- 
losophy of 6th century, 71-3; 
"Age of Tyrants," 74; rise of 
democracy at Athens, 75-81 ; 
Spartan training and military 
leadership, 81-3 ; geography, 
and contrast with Oriental 
States, 84-7; Persian Wars, 
which see; Athenian leader- 
ship, see Athens; Spartan lead- 
ership, see Sparta; Theban 
leadership, 131-2; Macedonian 
conquest, 133 ; failure of city- 
state, 132-3 ; in the Orient with 
Alexander and after, see Graeco- 
Oriental World; contributions 
to civilization, 147 ; see Athens 
Macedonia, Rome. 

Gregory the Great, Pope, and 
England, 268. 



Gregory VII, Pope (Hildebrand), 
282. 

Gregory XI, Pope, 314. 

Gunpowder, invention of, and early 
use, 302, 305 ; later improve- 
ments and importance, 324. 

Gutenberg (goot'6n-b6rG), John, 
325. 

Habeas Corpus, 287. 

Hadrian, Emperor, 217; mau- 
soleum of, Plate after 246. 

Hadrian's Wall, 217 and note, and 
map after p. 218. 

Halicarnassus (hal-i-car-nas'sus), 
map after p. 52. 

Hamilear Barca (ha-mil'car bar'- 
ca), 175. 

Hammurapi (ham-mu-ra'pi), of 
Babylon, 31 ; laws of, 35-6. 

Hanging Gardens, at Babylon, 39. 

Hannibal (han'ni-bal), 175-80; 
route, map after 176. 

Hanseatic (han-se-at'ic) League, 
300 and map p. 302. 

Hapsburg (haps'buro), the, 315-6, 
319. 

Harold, the Saxon, 284. 

Hasdrubal (has'dru-bal), the Bar- 
cide, 179. 

Hastings, Battle of, 284. 

Hathor, Egyptian diety, Plates 
III, VIII. 

"Heathen," 241, note. 

Hebrews, Semites, 30, note; 
early history to the Exodus, 
48-9; under the Judges, 49; 
Kings and Prophets, 49 ; David 
and Solomon, 50-1 ; division 
and dechne, 51 ; Assyrian cap- 
tivity, 51 ; Babylonian captiv- 
ity, 51 ; return to Palestine, 51 ; 
priestly rule, 52; and our Old 
Testament, ib.; mission, 52; 



IS 



INDEX 



provinro of Roman Empire, 21 f) ; 

destruction and dis])erHion, 215; 

see Jerusalem. 
Hegira (he-Kl'ra), the, 254. 
Hellas (hfl'las), St. 
Hellenes (hcrr'ii/-^ term (explained. 

S4. 
Hellenism and Hellenistic, terms 

compared, 140, note. 
Hellespont (hcl'es-pont), the, map 

alter J). 52. 
Helot (ho 'lot), 82. 
Helvetii (hel-ve'ti-T), 201-2. 
Henry H, 2S5. 
Henry HI. 2S9. 
Henry IV, 303. 
Henry VII. 311. 
Henry VIII, 311. 
Henry the Navigator, 323. 
Hephaestus (he-{)ha's'tus), 65. 
Hera (he'ra), ()5. 
Herculaneum (her-cu-la'ne-um), 

•2\i\. 
Heresies, early Christian, 241-2. 
Hermes (her'me.s), 65; statue l)y 

I^raxiteles, 126. 
Hermits, Christian, 251. 
Herodotus (he-rod 'o-tus), (juoted 

on pyramids, 15; on Noco's 

circumnavigation of Africa, 27; 

on Persian morals, 45; place in 

literature. 86, 109. 
Hesiod (he'si-od), 73. 
Hiero (hi'e-ro) II, 177. 
Hieroglyphics (hi-or-o-gl yph 'ies) . 

i:^vptian, 18-9; Chaldean, 36-7. 
Hipparchus (hi|)-par'chus), philo.s- 

()|)licr, 146. 
Hipparchus. tyrant. SO. 
Hippias (lilp'p!-as). tyrant. SO. 
Hiram of Tyre, and Solomon, 50. 
Hittites fhit'titfs), and ERyi)tians, 

27; iron weapons of, 27. 31; 

map.s, 50 and after IS, 3s. 



Holbein fhdl'hrln), Dutch painter, 
323. 

Holy Roman Empire, .see Charle- 
nnignc; rcvi\al of Roman Em- 
pire in the WCst l.y Otto; effect 

. on Germany and on Italy, 293, 
315 ff. ; and the Hapshur^s, 316. 

Homeric poems, 5S, (iS, 79 ; re- 
du('ed to writing, 79. 

Hoplites (hop'IIt6"s), Greek heavy- 
armed infantry, 124. 

Horace, Latin poet, 187, 225, 226. 

Horus (ho'rus), Egyptian deity, 
Plates III, VIII. ' 

Houses, Egyptian, 12, 14; in 
I)rimitive Aegean civilization, 
53; in age of Pericles, 116-7; 
early Roman, 152-3; Roman 
about 200 B.C., 172; after Punic 
Wars, 185 and Plates after 182, 
188; in feudal age, 270-1, 274. 

Hungarians, nomad raids, 266 ; 
checked by Otto, 292. 

Hungary, see Huytgarians; he- 
comes a Chri.stian kingdom, 292; 
and the Turks, 317; a Haps- 
hurg province, 316. 

Hus, John. 314-5. 

Hyksos (hyk'sos), the. 25, 49. 

Hymettus (hy-m?t'tus), map. p. 
94. 

Hyphasis (hy'pha-sis) River, map 
after p. 134. 

Iconoclastic (i-con-o-clas'tic) dis- 
pute, the, 25(). 

Ikhnaton ( ik-hna'ton), and his 
iiymn, 22-3. 

Iliad (il'i-ad), the, 58. 

Imbros firn'hros), map after ]). 70. 

Immortality. l)(4ief in, prehistoric 
man, 3; Egyptian, 23-4; Per- 
sian, 45; Greek, 66; and see 
Snrnitcs. 



INDEX 



19 



Imperator (im-per-a'tor), title, 205. 

Infantry, early meaning, 271. 

Interdict, the, 289. 

Ionia, Athenian colonization of, 
67 ; early center of art and phi- 
losophy, 72 ; map after 52. 

Ionic Order, see Architecture 

Iran (e-ran'), Plateau of, 66; map 
after p. 38. 

Ireland, schools in Dark Ages, 301. 

Irene (i-rene'), Empress, 260. 

Iron, known to early Hittites, 27, 
31 ; to Achaeans, 58. 

Isabella of Castile, 317, 327. 

Isis (i'sis), Egyptian deity, Plate 
VIII. 

Iskandar (is-kan-diir'), map after 
134. 

Isocrates (I-soc'ra-tes), 133. 

Israel, Kingdom of, 51 ; see He- 
brews; map, 50. 

Issus (is'sus), Battle of, 136; map 
after p. 134. 

Italy, map after p. 148 ; Greek col- 
onies in, see Magna Graecia; 
land and peoples, 148-9; see 
Rome, Goths, Lombards; divided 
between Teutons and Empire, 
248; see Papacy, Franks; and 
Holy Roman Empire, 292-3; 
in fragments in 13th century, 
293, 319; see Renaissance. 

Ithaca (ith'a-ca), map after 52. 

Janiculum (ja-nic'u-lum). Mount, 
152; map, 151. 

Janus (ja'nus), 153; gates of 
temple closed by Augustus, 211, 
214. 

Japan, medieval rumors of, in Eu- 
rope, 325. 

Jaxartes (jax-ar'tes), the, map 
after p. 134. 

Jephthah (jeph'thiih), 49. 



Jerusalem, 51; map, 50; de- 
struction by Titus, 215; patriar- 
chate of, 255 ; becomes Moham- 
medan, 254, 256; see Crusades; 
maps after 210 and on p. 50; 
Saracenic walls of, Plate after 
294. 

Joan of Arc, see Arc, Joan. 

John, of England, 286. 

Joseph, the Hebrew, 48. 

Joshua, 49. 

Judah, Kingdom of, 80; map, 50; 
see Hebrews. 

Jugglers, medieval, 277. 

Julian Caesars, the, 215, note. 

Juno (ju'no), 65. 

Jupiter, 65, 154. 

Jury, the Athenian, 105-6. 

Jury, the modern system of trial 
by, 285, 288. 

Jury, Grand, 285. 

Justinian (jus-tin 'i-an) the Great, 
247-8. 

Justinian Code, the, 248. 

Juvenal (ju'v6n-al), 185, 226. 

Kandahar (kan-da-har'), map after 

p. 134. 
Karnak (kar'nak), temple at, 12 

and Plate IV after 12 ; map, 

p. 10. 
Khufu (ku'fu), 15. 
Kitchen utensils in ancient Crete, 

55. 
Knighthood, see Chivalry. 
Knights of St. John, 296. 
Knights Templar, 296. 
Knights, Teutonic, 296 ; in eastern 

Europe, map after 302. 
Knossos (knos'sos), Palace of, 

54-5 ; map after 18, 52. 
Koran (ko-ran'), the, 254. 
Kossova (kos-so'vii). Battle of, 

317. 



'JO 



INDKX 



Leo III. ;iii(l Cliarli'iimgnc, 2G0. 

Leo the Isaurian, 256. 

Leonardo (Ifi-o-nar'do) da Vinci (chi 

vinVhe), 323. 
Leonidas (Ic-on'i-das), 93. 
Lesbos (le.s'hos), 157; map after 

r)2. 
Leuctra (Icuc'tra), Battle of, and 

plan. 131. 
Libations, in Clreek worshiji, 64. 
Libraries, Babylonian, 3()-7 ; in 

Gracco-Oriental World, a.*^ at 

Aloxandria, 14o-(). 
Licinian laws, the, KiO-l. 
Licinius (li-cin'i-u.s), Kinporor, 210. 
Ligurians (li-J2;ri'ri-an.s), niap after 

lis. 
Liris (ll'ri.'^), tho, >na|) aftor 1 IS. 
Livy, 22() ; cniotod ixtssim. 
Lollards, the. .307, 31 I. 
Lombards, 2 is. j.-,?, 2.'.S, 2.")0 ; 

map :iff(*r 2<>0. 
Louis IX, of I'r.incc. 2«>0. 
Louis XI, 312. 
Louvre fNilTjvr), art museum in 

modern Paris. 



Lydia (lyd'i-a), map after 38 ; and 

eoinaji;e, 41. 
Lyons, map after p. 218. 
Lyric Age, in Greece, 73. 
Lysander (ly-san'der), the Spartan, 

127. 



Lacedaemonians (lac-e-die-mo'ni- I Lucretius (lu-ere'ti-u.s), 226 
aiisi, siH- Sixiihi; map after 52 ; | Lycurgus (ly-eur'gus), 81. 
t(Mtn e.xplained, 9S, note. 

Lacroix (lii-erwii'), a French au- 
thority upon medieval times, 
271 and elsewhere. 

Lancastrians, growth of Parliament 
under, .309-10. 

Latin colonies, 165. 

Latin language, in Middle Ages, 
303. 

Latium (la'ti-um), 149; maj) after 
p. 14S and on 150. 

Lebanon Mountains, map on p. 50. 

Lechfeld (iCK'fflt), Battle of, 292. 

Legion, the Roman, l()7-8. 

Lemnos (lem'nos), map after p. 



Macedonia (mae-e-do'ni-a), map 

after 52; rise of, 132-3; and 

Philij) II, 132-4; see Alexander. 
Maelius, Spurius (mie'li-us, Spii'- 

ri-us), 159. 
Magna Carta, 2S6-7. 
Magna Graecia, 70; map after j). 

70. 

Mahomet (ma-liom'et i the Con- 
queror, 317. 
Manlius (man'li-us), Marcus, 159, 

161. 
Manor, feudal, 273-5. 
Mantinea (man-ti-ne'a), broken 

into villages by Sparta, 130; 

restored by Epaminondas, 132; 

battle of. 132; map after 52. 
Marathon. Battle of, SS-91 ; maps, 

94 and after 52. 
March of the Ten Thousand, 129- 

30. 
Mardonius (mar-do'ni-us), 95-6. 
Marius fma'ri-us), 197-9. 
Martin V. ]'op(\ 315. 
Mary of Burgundy, 31'.» and Plate 

opposite. 
Massilia (mas-sil'i-a), map after 

70. 
Maximilian I. l'jn|)eror, .IKV ;uul 

Pl.ate after 3 IS. 
Mayfields. 251. 261. 
Mecca (mfe'ea), 25;;; ma|> after 

134. 
Medes (medcs), the, 41 ; map after 

38. 



INDEX 



21 



Megalopolis (meg-a-l6p'o-lis), 132. 
Megara (meg'a-ra), map after 

52. 
Melius Spurius (me'li-us spu'ri-us), 

159. 
Memnon (mem'non), Colossi of, 

Plate after 27. 
Memphis, in Egypt, map, 10. 
Men-at-arms, 479. 
Menes (me'nes), of Egypt, 11. 
Merovingians (mer-o-vin'ji-ans), 

rulers of the House of Clovis, 

Empire of, map after 252. 
Mesopotamia (mes-o-po-ta'mi-a), 

29 ; map after 18. 
Messene (mes-se'ne), 132; map 

after 52. 
Messenia (mes-se'ni-a), map after 

52. 
Metaurus (me-tau'rus). Battle of, 

179; map after 176. 
Metropolis (of a Greek colony ; 

mother city), 70. 
Metropolitan (met-ro-pol 'i-tan) , 

see Archbishop. 
Metz, Cathedral of, Plate after 

304. 
Micah (mi'cah), Hebrew prophet, 

denunciation of greed of wealth, 

51. 
Michael Angelo (mi'kel iin'je-lo), 

597. 
" Middle Ages," the, 321. 
Milan, map after 210; Edict of, 

240. 
Miletus (mil-e'tus), map after 52; 

founded, 67 ; colonies, 70. 
Miltiades (mil-tl'a-des), 90. 
Milvian (mil'vi-an) Bridge, Battle 

of, 239. 
Minnesingers (min'ne-sing-ers), 

304. 
Minos (mi'nos), of Crete, 53. 
Missals, illuminated, 304. 



Mithridates (mith-ri-da'tes) VI, 

199. 
Mohammed (mo-ham 'med), 253-4. 
Mohammedanism, 245, 253-5 ; see 

Saracens, Turks; culture in 11th 

century, 294-5. 
Monasticism (mon-as'ti-cism), 

251-2. 
Money, no coinage in ancient 

Egypt, 17; invention of coin- 
age, 41 ; early Roman, 171 ; 

under Empire, drain to the East, 

235, 236 ; lack in Middle Ages, 

272; increase of, undermines 

feudalism, 297. 
Money power in politics, in Roman 

RepubHc, 183-4 ; in the Empire, 

232, 233. 
Montfort (mont'fort), Simon of, 

289. 
More, Su- Thomas, 324. 
Moses, and the Exodus, 49. 
Moustier (moos'ti-a), Le, and 

Stone Age remains, Plate after 

p. 2. 
Museum, Plato's, at Athens, 145; 

Ptolemy's, at Alexandria, 145-6. 
Mycale (myc'a-le), Battle of, 99; 

map after 52. 
Mycenae (my-ce'nie), 56-7; map 

after 52. 
Myron, Greek sculptor, 122 and 

Plate after 184. 

Nahum, on fall of Assyria, 32. 

Naucratis (nau-cra'tis), Greek col- 
ony in Egypt, 27 ; map, 10. 

Naupactus (nau-pac'tus), map 
after 52. 

Nausicaa (nau-sic'a-a), 63. 

Naxos (nax'os), 100; map after 
52. 

Nearchus (ne-ar'ehus), 139; route 
of, map after 134. 



22 



INDEX 



Nebuchadnezzar (iicl )-ii-€had-nez '- 

zarl, ;>;). 
Neco (nc'co), of I'^fiypt, 27. 
Nero, Kinpcror, 213-4. 
Nerva fiier'v^a), Knii)cr()r, 217. 
Netherlands. 317-9. 
" New Monarchy, " in England, 

Tudor, :ni. 
New Stone Age, 4-8. 
Nicaea (ni-ciu'a), map after 21S ; 

Council of, 242. 
Nicene (nl'cenc) Creed, the, hi.s- 

tory of, 242. 
Nicholas V, Pope, 315. 
Nicias (nic'i-as), 126. 
Nile, the, map, p. 10. 
Nimes (nrni), Aqueduct of, 220. 
Ninevah (iiiu'c-vali), 49; map 

after IS, 38. 
Normandy, 2()7 ; maj) after 290. 
Norseman. 2<)(). 
Norwich (nor'it-ich), Cathedral of, 

304. 

Octavius Caesar, 209-12; see 

August lis. 
Odysseus (o-dys'seus), ()2, 63, 64, 

Odyssey (od'y.s-sey), 59 fF. 
Old Stone Age. 1-4. 
Oligarchy, defined, (52, note. 
Olympia. map after 52; games at, 

(VS; Stadium. Plate after 68. 
Olympiad, (is. 
Olympic Games. ()S. 
Olympus, inaj) after 52. 
Olynthus (o-Iyii'tlius), map after 

52. 
Ordeal. Trial by. 248-9. 
Orleans, map after 290. 
Osiris, I^gyptiaii deity. Plate VIII. 
Ostia, 1st Roman colony. l.VJ; 

m:ip. 150. 
Ostracism (o.s'tra-ci.sm), 81. 



Ostrogoths (o.s'tro-goth.s), see East 

Coths. 
Otto I, and Hungarian invasions, 

292; and Holy Roman Empire, 

292. 
Oudenarde (ou-de-nardc'), 13th 

(;entury town-hall, Plate after 

298. 
Ounce, a division of the Babylo- 
nian minn, equivalent in weight 

to the shekel, 171. 
Oxford Reformers. 323. 
Oxus (ox'us) River, map after 42. 
Ozymandias (o-zy-man'di-as), 28. 

Pagans, term exi)lained, 241, note. 

Painting, Cave-man, 4; Egyptian, 
Plate VII, facing 23 ; Greek, 71 
143 ; medieval, 304 ; Renais- 
sance, 322 ; and oils, 322. 

Palatine (para-tinc) Hill, map, 151, 
and Plate XLI. 

Palestine, map, 50. 

Palmyra fpal-my'ra), map after 
218. 

Pamphylia (pam-phyl'i-a), map 
after 70. 

Pantheon (pan'the-on), the, 225 
and Plate opposite. 

Papacy, claims of early Roman 
bishops, 25t) ; advantages of 
Rome, /7).; Eastern rivals elim- 
inated, ih.; head of Latin Chri>- 
tendom, 25()-7 ; ri.se to temporal 
[)ower, 257; and Lombards and 
Franks, 257-8; and Charle- 
magne. 259-60 ; and Holy Ro- 
man I'jnpire. which see; loses 
power; " H.ibylonian Captiv- 
ity," 313-5. 

Papal states, origin, 258. 

Paper, invention of, 325. 

Papyrus fi)a-py'rus), 19. 

Paris, University of, 301. 



INDEX 



23 



Parliament (English), origin, 

287-9 ; and Simon of Montfort, 

289; ''Model Parliament" of 

1295, 289; division into Lords 

and Commons, 290 ; gains under 

Lancastrians, 309-10 ; saved 

under Tudors, 311. 
Parnassus (par-nas'sus). Mount, 

map after 52. 
I'arthenon (par'the-non), 107 and 

cuts after 103, 106, 130. 
Parthians (par'thi-ans), 198; map 

after 218. 
Patriarch, in church organization, 

255. 
Patricians (pa-tri'cians), 154. 
Pavia (pa-ve'a). Battle of, 320; 

map after 296. 
Peasant Rising of 1381 (English), 

308-9. 
Pedagogue (ped'a-gogue), term 

explained, 121. 
Peloponnesian (pel-o-pon-ne'si-an) 

League, 82. 
Peloponnesian War, causes and 

character, 124-5 ; plague at 

Athens, 125; loss in Syracusan 

expedition, 126 ; exhaustion and 

fall of Athens, 127. 
Penates (pe-na'tes), 64. 
Pentelicus (pen-tel'i-cus). Mount, 

map, 94. 
Pergamos (per'ga-mos), 140; map 

facing 135. 
Pericles, 104-5 ff. ; glorification 

of Athens, 112. 
Persepolis (per-sep'o-lis), maps 

after 42, 134. 
Persia, 41-5; and Greeks, 88-96, 

99-100. 
Persian Wars, 88 ff. 
Perugino (pe-ru'gi-no), 323. 
Petrarch (pe'trarch), 322. 
Phaedrus (phsed'rus), 115. 



Phalanx (pha'lanx), Theban, 131; 
Macedonian, 134; compared 
with Roman legion, 168. 

Phalerum (pha-le'rum), map, 94. 

Pharaohs (pha'raohs), of Egypt, 
11. 

Pharos (pha'ros), lighthouse, 142. 

Pharsalus (phar-sa'lus). Battle of, 
:, 204 ; map after 218. 

Phidias (phid'i-as), 107. 

Phidippides (phi-dip 'pi-des), 89, 90. 

Philae (phl'lse), map, 10. 

Philip II, of Macedonia, 132-4. 

Philip V, ally of Hannibal, 177. 

Philip II, of France (Philip Augus- 
tus), 290. 

Philip IV (the Fair), 290-1, 313. 

Philip of Hapsburg (haps'burc), 
Plate after 318. 

Philippi (phil-ip'pl), Battle of, 209; 
map after 218. 

Philippics (phil-ip'pics), of Demos- 
thenes, 134. 

Philistines, 49, 50; map, 50. 

Philosophy, see Greek Philosophy. 

Phocis (pho'sis), map after 52. 

Phoenicians (phoe-ni'sians), Sem- 
itic, 30; sailors and merchants, 
46 ; colonizers, 47 ; alphabet, 
47; influence on early Greece, 
60; map, 50. 

Phrygia (phryg'i-a), map after 42, 
218. 

Pilgrimages, in medieval life, 295. 

Pillars of Hercules, map after 70. 

Pindar, 73, 135. 

Pippin the Short, 258. 

Piraeus (pi-rse'us), map, 94. 

Pisistratus (pis-is 'tra-tus), 7^-9. 

Plataea (pla-tie'-a), Battle of, 96; 
map after 52. 

Plato, 143 ; see Museum. 

Plebeians (ple-be'ians), at Rome, 
154, 156 ff. 



24 



IXDKX 



Plebiscites (|)l('l)'is-citcs), Roman, 
HiO. 

Pliny the Younger, 220. 

Plow, ovolution of, 5, 6. 

Plutarch (plu'tareh), 226; quoted 
frcHjuently. 

Pnyx (pnyx), lOo; maj), 101. 

Polybius (i)o-lyl)'i-u.s), 180; quoted 
t"r('(}uc'iitly. 

Pompeii (poin-pa'i), 188, and cuts 
at'l(M- ISO, 188. 

Pompey " the Great,'* 199. 

Pontius (pon'ti-as), the Samnite, 
UV.i. 

Pontus (i)()n'tus), map after 70. 

Pope, orij^in of name, 256, note. 

Porsenna (por-.s6n'na), 157, note. 

Poseidon (])o-sei'don), 65. 

Post roads, Persian, 44 and map 
after 42 ; Roman, 166, 167, and 
maps 168 and after 218. 

Pottery, sifinificancc in culture, 2; 
potter's wluH'l an Kjiyptian in- 
vention, 18 ; in Cretan civiliza- 
tion, 53, 55; Greek vases, 70-1 ; 
many illustrations from, as on 
70. 88, etc. 

Praetor (prie'tor), Roman, 169. 

Praetorians (prse-to'ri-ans), 213. 

Praxiteles (prax-It'6-le§), 126. 

Prehistoric man, 1-8. 

Printing, invention, 324-5. 

Propylaea (|)r6p-y-la^'a), of .\<-rop()- 
lis, {-lit facing 1()3. 

Protectorate f|)ro-t(M't<)-ratf), term 
explained, 181, note. 

Provence (pro-vOns'), oripin of 
name, 201, iiote. 

Provinces. Roman, ls<) 90. sec 
Cm siir. 

Psammetichus (/(sani-inct 'i-clmsi, 
27. 

Ptolemy (//tol'i^-niy ) I and II, of 
Egypt, 141-2, 145. 



Ptolemy, geographer, 226. 

Punic Wars, 174-81. 

Pyramids, Egyptian, 15-6; Plates 

\ and IX ; map, 10. 
Pyrrhus (p^r'r/ius), 162. 
Pythagoras (py-thag'o-rasj, 74. 

Quadrivium (quad-riv'i-um), Ro- 
man, 224, note. 
Questors (quius'tors), Roman, 169. 
Quintain (quin'tain), exercise of, 

278. 

Rameses (ra-me'se§) III, temple 
of. Plates after 20, 28. 

Raphael (raph'a-el), 323. 

Rehoboam (r("-/H")-l)o'ain), 51. 

Relief sculptures, definition, 12, 
note; illustrations frequent. 

Religion, prehistoric, 3; Egyptian, 
22-4; Chaldean, 40; Persian, 
44-5; Hebrews, 51-2; Greek, 
64-6; see Greek Philosophy; 
Roman, 153-4; see Christianift/^ 
Moha m m cda n ism . 

Renaissance, the. .'^21-7. 

Representative government. growt h 
in England, see Parliament. 

Rheims Cathedral, Plate after 304. 

Richard II, 307-8, 309. 

Roads, sec Post Roads. 

Roman Empire, .see Rome; and 
.lulius Caesar. 204-9; Julius to 
.Augustus. 209-10; Augustus, 
211-2; in first two centuries, 
story of, 211-8; government, 
219; extent, 219; a city-life, 
219; industry, 221; trade and 
travel. 221-3; unity of, 223; 
peace and prosperity. 22;i-4 ; 
.irchitccture, 224; education 
and learning, 224-6; morals, 
226-8; decline after 180 a.d., 
229 ff. ; cau.ses,. 232-6; victory 



INDEX 



25 



of Christian cJiurch, 237 ff. ; see 
Teutons. 
Roman Forum, see Forum. 
Roman heritage for civilization, 

263-4. 
Roman Law, see Justinian Code. 
Roman Republic, land and peoples 
of Italy, 148-9; legendary his- 
tory, 149 ; Etruscan trade, 150 ; 
the "seven hills," 151; "ty- 
rants," 151-2; head of Latium, 
152; life simple, 152-3; reh- 
gion, 53-4; patricians and ple- 
beians — class strife, 155-61 ; 
unites Italy, 161-2; war with 
Pyrrhus, 162; Italy under 
Rome's . rule, 164-9 ; Roman 
society at 200 b.c, 169-73; 
winning of the West, 174-81; 
conquest of the East, 181-2; 
new class strife, rich and poor, 
180-91; the Gracchi, 192-6; 
Marius and Sulla, 197-9; 
Pompey and Caesar, 199-203; 
civil war, 203; see Caesar, 
Roman Empire. 
Rome, city of, map of, " under 
kings," 151; under Empire, 
with Aurelian's walls, 229-30; 
sack by Goths, 245 ; by Vandals,' 
Plate opposite 245 ; see Papacy. 
Rosetta (ro-set'ta) Stone, 19-20. 
Rubicon (ru'bi-con), the crossing 

of, 203 ; map after 148. 
Rubruk (ru'bruk). Friar, 325. 
Rudolph of Hapsburg (haps'buro), 

315-6. 
Rimnymede (run'ny-mede), 286. 



Sabines (sa 'bines), 150; map, 150. 
St. Mark's, Venice, Plate .after 322. 
St. Sophia, Constantinople, Plate 

after 316. 
Sais (sa'is), 27; map, 10. 



Salamis (saFa-mis), Battle of, 

94-5; map, 94, 101. 
Salisbury (sahs'be-ry) Cathedral, 
Plate after 282 ; cloisters of, 288. 
Samnites (sam'nites), map after 

148. 
Samos (sa'mos), map after 52. 
Samson, 49. 
Samuel, 49. 
Sappho (sa'fo), 73. 
Saracens (sar'a-cens), culture in 
11th century, 294-5; see Mo- 
hammedanism. 
Sardinia, map after 70. 
Sardis (sar'dis), map after 42. 
Sargon (sar'gon), of Assyria, 31. 
Saul, 49. 
Saxons, in Britain, 245, 267 ; map 

after 268. 
Schliemann (schKe'mann), and 

work, 59. 
Schoolmen, medieval, 302-4. 
Schools, in Chaldea, 36 ; in Greece 
in age of Pericles, 119, 121, 123; 
Roman, 172 ; in Roman Empire, 
224-5; in Empire of Charle- 
magne, 262; in Middle Ages, 
301 ; grow into universities, 
which see. 
Science, see Education and Learn- 
ing. 
Scipio (scip'i-o) (P. Cornelius 

Scipio Africanus), 179-90. 
Scipio Africanus the Younger 

180-1. 
Scythians, in Assyria, 32; and 

Persians, 42-3. 
Segesta (se-g6s'ta), map after 70. 
Semites (sem'ites), and Semitic 

speech, 30, note. 
Seneca, 213, 226. 

Sennacherib (sen-naeh'e-rib), 31. 
Septuagint (sep'tu-a-gint), the, 
145. 



'20 



INDKX 



Serfdom, in Koiiiaii liinpiro, 2.'io; 
in IViulal ap;(', 270, 273-4; dis- 
appeaniiifc in JOn^land, 300-1). 

Sertorius (ser-to'ri-as), 199. 

Servius Tullius (scr'vi-us tul'li-us), 
152; walls of, 155 and map on 
151. 

Shalmaneser (slii\l-ni;l-ne'scr) II, 
oholisk of, 32. 

Sicily, Clreek colonies in, 70; and 
wars with Carthage, 88, 174; 
and Punic Wars, 174-5, 176, 
177; Roman province, 189. 

Sidon (sl'don), map after 18 and 
on 50. 

Simon of Montfort, 2S9. 

Slavery, origin, 5; Greek, in 
Sparta, 82; in Athens, in age ot 
Pericles, 112-3; I^oman, after 
Punic Wars, 191 ; under limpire, 
milder, 228 ; hut of enormous 
amount, 232 ; see Serfdom. 

Slavs (slavs), 245; maps after 
248, 260. 

Social War, th(\ in Italy, 198. 

Socrates (soc'ra-te.^), 110-2; teach- 
ings on immortality, 115. 

Sogdiana (s5g'di-an'a), map after 
42. 

Solomon, 50. 

Solon (so'lon), democratic reforms, 
77-8. 

Sophists. th<'. 110. 

Sophocles (.sopli'oH'If'.s), 108. 

Spain, ('arthage in, 175; falls to 
Home, 180; Vandal conquests 
and Gothic kingdom, 245; Aral) 
concjuest, 254 ; rccoxcrN- and 
union, 31()-7; union with Holy 
Roman Empire, under Charles, 
see Charles V. 

Sparta, leading Dorian city, 81 ; 
government, 82-3; Spartan 
training, 82-3; and Persian 



Wars, 89-96 ; Peloj)onnesiau 
War, which see; leadership in 
Hellas, 127-31; and Leuctra, 
131-2. 

Spartacus (.spiir'ta-cus), 199. 

Sphinx, Plate after 14. 

State, definition of, 3. 

States General, French, see Es- 
tates Gem ml. 

Stephen, Pope, and Pipj)in, 258. 

Stoics, 144. 

Stone Age, 1-5. 

Stonehenge (stone 'hcnge), Plate 
after 4. 

Strabo (stra'bo), 226. 

Sulla (sul'la), 198-200. 

Sugar, introduced after C'rusades, 
294. 

Susa (su'sii), maps after 42, 134. 

Sybaris (syh'a-ris), Greek colony 
in Italy, map after 70. 

Syracuse, map after 70. 

Syria, maps 50 and after 18 and 
134. 

Tacitus (tac'i-tus), 226; on early 
Christians, 237 ; on Teutons, 244. 

Talmud (tal'mud), the, 40. 

Tarentum (tar-en 'tum), map after 
70. 

Tarquins, Roman tyrants, 152. 

Taurus (tau'rus) Mountains, maps, 
33 and after' 38. 

Telescope, invention of. 324. 

Tempe (tem'p?), Vale of. in:ip 
after 52. 

Ten Thousand, March of the. 129- 
30. 

Terminus (ler'niin-us). god of 
hounds. 153. 

Teutones (teu'fn-ne.s) (and Cim- 
hri). 197-8. 

Teutonic contributions to civiliza- 
tion, 263-4. 



INDEX 



27 



Teutonic Law, 248-9. 

Teutonic Order, Knights of the, 

map after 302. 
Teutons, in their first homes, 244 ; 

invasions and kingdoms on 

Roman soil, 245 and map 

after 248; and the Dark Ages, 

245-6. 
Thales (tha'Ies), 73. 
Thasos (tha'sos), map after 52. 
Thebes (thebes), in Egypt, map, 

10; in Greece, map after 52; 

leadership, 131-2; and Mace- 
donia, 134; razed, 135. 
Themistocles (the-mis'to-cles), 91- 

2, 94-5, 97-8. 
Theocritus (the-oc'ri-tus), 142. 
Theodosius (the-o-do'si-us) the 

Great, 240-1. 
Theogony (the-6g'o-ny) of Hesiod, 

73. 
Thermopylae (th6r-mop';y-l2e), Bat- 
*» tie of, 93 ; map after 52. 
Thersites (thgr-si'tes), 62. 
Theseus (the'seus), 61 ; so-called 

Temple of, 79. 
Thespis (thgs'pis), 73, 79. 
Thessaly, map after 52. 
" Thirty Tyrants," at Athens, 

128-31. 
Thrace, map after 52. 
Thucydides (thu-cyd'i-des), 109; 

on Peloponnesian War, 125. 
Thutmosis (thlit-mo'sis), 25. 
Tiberius (ti-be'ri-us), 213. 
Ticinus (ti-cl'nus), Battle of, 176; 

map after 148. 
Tintoretto (tin-to-ret'to), 323. 
Titian (ti'shian), 323. 
Titus (ti'tus), 215. 
Toga (to'ga), the, described, 

279. 
Toulouse (tou-louse')> map after 

218. 



Tours (toor). Battle of, 255; map 
facing 253. 

Towns, in Graeco-Roman World, 
137-9; mider Roman Empire, 
220-1; few from 600 to 1100 
A.D., 251 ; survival in south Eu- 
rope, 251 ; rise of, after Cru- 
sades, 297-8;' hfe in, 298-9; 
gilds, 299-300; leagues of, see 
City-State. 

Trajan (tra'jan), Emperor, 217; 
column of, 216, and Plate oppo- 
site ; arch of, Plate after 228. 

Transubstantiation (tran-sub-stan- 
shi-a'shon). Doctrine of, 307, 
note. 

Trasimene (tras'i-mene). Battle 
of, 176; map after 148. 

Trebia (treb'i-a). Battle of, 176; 
map after 148. 

Tribune, Roman, 159. 

Trier, Roman remains at, 225 ; 
map after 218. 

Trireme (tri'reme), 124. 

Trivium (triv'i-um), the Roman, 
224. 

Troubadours (trou'bii-doors), the, 
304. 

Troy, story of siege, 58; excava- 
tions at, 59-60; map after 70. 

Tudors, the, 311. 

Turks, the, 295; and Crusades, 
294-6; in southeast Europe, 317. 

Twelve Tables, the laws of the, 
159. 

Tyrants, Greek, place between oli- 
garchies and democracies, 74-5. 

Tyre, 46-7; map after 18 and 
38, etc. 

Ulpian (ul'pi-an), 228. 

Universities, origin in Graeco-Ori- 
ental World, see Museum; Ro- 
man. 224-5; medieval, 301-2. 



28 



l.\l>K\ 



Ur, in Chaldoa, .SO, 4S ; maj) aftor 

18. 
Urban VI, Pope, ;5l I. 
Utica (u'ti-ca), fouiidiMl hv IMiociii- 

cians, 47 ; map alter 70. 
Utopia. .V2\. 

Vandals. 245 and Plate after 240 ; 

iiiaj) after 248. 
Van Eycks (Iks'), the, and oil 

j)aintins, 32.3. 
Vaphio (vaph'i-o) Cups, the, Plates 

W. XVI. after .')4. 
Vasco da Gama (vii.s'co dii gil'ma), 

:;24. 
Venice, 217. 

Venus, 153; see Aphrodite. 
Verdun (ver-dun'), Treaty of, 205; 

map of, after 264. 
Vergil (ver'gil), 226. 
Verres (vfr'res), and Sicily, 190. 
Vespasian ( vos-pa'si-an), Emperor, 

215. 
Vesta fves'ta), 65, 1.53. 
Vestal Virgins, 1.53. 
Vezere (va-zar') River. Plate after 

'rciitoiiic, 



Wars of the Succession, 140. 

Wat the Tyler, 30S. 

Watling Street, 2()S; map after 

2(iS. 

Wergeld (ver'^Mt), 248. 

Wessex (wes'sex), 26S and map 
()p])()site. 

West Goths, 245; map after 248. 

William I, of England, 284. 

Witan (wi'tan), 287, 289. 

Woman, in primitive indu.'^try, 2, 
4, 5; in l"]iz;ypt, 14-5; in 
Greece, 7S, 113; in Roman Em- 
pire, 227. 

Writing, stages in invention of, 
6-8; see Alphabet, Hieroglyph- 
ics, Cuneiform, Printing. 

Wyclif (\Ay'clif), John, 307, 315. 

Xenophon (zen'o-ph6n), 110; and 
" March of the Ten Thousand," 
1.30; at ruins of Nineveh, 33. 

Xerxes (zerx'es), 91-5. 

York, map after 2 IS. 
Ypres (e'pr), Hall at, 318. 



Villa. Rorii.in. Is5( 

250 1. 
Villeins ivil'Ieins), 270 ff. 
Visigoths (vis'i-trotlis). see Wi:'<t 

Volscians Cvol'sri-ans). m.-ip, 150. Zeus. ( 

Zeuxis (zeux'is), 143 
Wars of the Roses. .Ml 



Zama (zfi'mii). Battle of. 190; map 

after 17«"). 
Zend Avesta (zend' a-vfs'tii), 44-5. 
Zeno. the Stoic. 144. 
Zenobia (ze-no'Oi-a^ 229. 



Zoroaster (zo-ro-iis'ter), 44-5. 



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